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Standard Program of Studies 



FOR THE 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 




DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



THIRD EDITION 



1919 



:WSi^'' 






STANDARD PROGRAM OF STUDIES 



FOR THE 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



OF 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

THIRD EDITION 

1919 



CONCORD, N. H. 
Evans Printing Company 
1919 






TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface 4 

Introduction 5 

Par,t I. The Secondary School Characterized 9 

Chapter I. Approval of Secondary Schools. ... 9 

Chapter II. The Junior High School 16 

Chapter III. High School Subjects Grouped 20 

Chapter IV. The Daily Time-Table 25 

Chapter V. The Evaluation of School Work 34 

Part II. The Suggested Program^ The Nine Curricula.... 39 

Part III. Courses Outlined 54 

Chapter I. English 54 

Chapter II. Foreign Languages 63 

Chapter III. Social Sciences 86 

Chapter IV. Physical Sciences 134 

Chapter V. Mathematics 156 

Chapter ^ VI. Domestic Arts 174 

Chapter VII. Commerce 196 

Chapter VIII. Agriculture 205 

Chapter IX. Mechanic Arts 234 

Appendices : 

A. Bibliography: The Secondary School. 262. 

B. The Art of Teaching 265 

C. Code of Ethics 275 



OCT 



^8 Wig 



PREFACE. 



The General Court of 1917 authorized this document by 
a specific appropriation to enable the Department of Edu- 
cation to revise and republish the program of studies of 
the secondary schools of New Hampshire. 

The revised program as here presented is intended to 
express the judgment of the Department of Education as 
to the standards which are sufficient to constitute a sec- 
ondary school within the meaning of Chapter 96 of the 
Session Laws of 1901. It is also expected that it wiU 
serve as a guide to school boards, superintendents and 
teachers and so will tend to unify the aims of New Hamp- 
shire secondary schools and to give public expression to 
our educational policies. 

Part I states the standards under which secondary 
schools will be approved and discusses their organization 
and administration. 

Part II typifies the suggested program for New Hamp- 
shire secondary schools and outlines recommended cur- 
ricula. 

Part III specifies the agreed quantitative minimum 
standards of the different courses and recommended con- 
tent of these courses with methods of classroom procedure. 
In every case the standards given have the approval of the 
Educational Council of New Hampshire and are based 
upon the classroom results in our best schools. 

The commissioner of education accepts the responsibility 
of the form in which the program is presented and grate- 
fully acknowledges his indebtedness to his colleagues, in 
and out of the Department, for wise counsel, for specific 
outlines and for unstinted assistance. 



Much detailed work has been done by the committee 
appointed by the Educational Council: Headmaster Har- 
lan M. Bisbee, Robinson Seminary ; Superintendent Nor- 
man J. Page, "Woodsville ; Professor Charles L. Simmers, 
New Hampshire College; Superintendent "William H, 
Slayton, Portsmouth; and Headmaster "Willis 0. Smith, 
Keene. 

The outlines for the several courses were drafted as 
follows : 

French — Superintendent Maro S. Brooks, Exeter. 
Latin — Headmaster Harlan M. Bisbee, Eobinson Semi- 
nary, Exeter. 
"LFnited States Constitutional History — Headmaster Justin 

0. "Wellman, Colby Academy, New London. 
Economics and Business Practices — Superintendent Harry 

L. Moore, Berlin. 
Masterpiece^ of Music and Art — Mrs. "Willis 0. Smith, 

Keene, and Headmaster Francis T. Clayton, Proctor 

Academy, Andover. 
Greek and Roman Literature — Headmaster Elbert E. Or- 

cutt, Plymouth. 
Physics — Headmaster "Willis 0. Smith, Keene. 
Chemistry — Superintendent H. Leslie Sawyer, Lebanon. 
Mathematics — Director "Wallace E. Mason, Keene, and 

Headmaster Daniel W. MacLean,^ Berlin. 
Practical Arts — Deputy Commissioner of Education 

George H. Whitcher. 
Bibliography on the Secondary School — Professor Charles 

L. Simmers, New Hampshire College, Durham. 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE 1919 PROGRAM. 

Note : This 'program, has ieen prepared for high schools 
organised on the six-year plan. Its adoption is not ohliga- 
tory. Other equally good programs may he adopted and 
will he approved. Schools which are not ready to reorgan- 
ize may continue with fotir-year prograrns of the old type. 

The Outline. 

In the preparation of the outline here given, the Depart- 
ment of Education has had in mind only the educational 
needs of the young people of New Hampshire. It has be- 
lieved it best, though, in a time of great and momentous 
changes in the educational world, to present an entirely 
conservative plan with the expectation of further changes 
as needs arise. It has looked upon the standards set by 
different colleges for entrance requirements as valuable 
expressions of the experiences of past years but not as 
barriers to the healthy development of our schools. It will 
be found, however, that the suggestive curricula offer full 
preparation for effective college work. 

The Last Decade. 

There are three reasons why the new program must dif- 
fer radically from the former ones, (a) In ten years, the 
number of pupils in our secondary schools has more than 
doubled and a large part of the increase is of pupils who 
have little inherited interest in and natural aptitude for 
the formal studies of academic programs, (b) The ad- 
vances made in education call for a revision of all school 
organization. In particular, the junior high school has 



6 

established its position in our educational system, (c) The 
events of these years emphasize the need of greater devel- 
opment of practical work. 

The Six-Four-Two Plan. 

In 1916, the elementary program was revised on the 
basis of six years in the elementary schools. The work 
for these six years was carefully outlined, together with 
the history, the science and the practical arts of Grades 
VII and VIII. This revision of the secondary program 
must carry on the plan as accepted. It is held that the 
development of the child in the first four classes of the 
six-year secondary school, that is, of a child twelve to six- 
teen years of age, calls for concrete work in many fields 
but does not respond readily to drill and abstract instruc- 
tion. On the other hand, the pupils of Classes V and VI 
have reached a maturity that permits effective organiza- 
tion of knowledge. Accordingly, the program is based on 
a four-two division, with the fourth year a period of tran- 
sition ; that is, in the first four years are grouped subjects 
that are inspirational, instructive and experimental, while 
the last two years contain courses designed to organize and 
make systematic the subject matter of various lines of 
study. 

Emphasis on Science and Its Application. 

Former programs were defective in that they permitted 
the devotion of excessive time to the language arts and 
slighted science and the practical arts. The events of the 
last few years have shown the folly of this emphasis and 
made it imperative that thorough work in science, in me- 
chanic arts and in agriculture should be available for all 
boys. It is equally important that all girls who are not 
fitting for the traditional requirements of some specific 
college should carry the study of domestic arts throughout 
their course. It will be seen that this is easily possible 
with a six-year program when difficult with one of four 
years. 



other Important Changes. 

This program lays greater stress than before on French 
as a school subject and places it in the first years of the 
secondary school. It delays formal courses in Mathematics 
and other traditional school subjects until there have been 
completed practical and concrete courses in English, His- 
tory and Mathematics. It recommends for all seniors a 
full year's work in Economics and the Business Practices. 

THE LAW. 

"By the term 'high school' or 'academy' as used in this 
act, is understood a school having at least one course of 
not less than four years, properly equipped and teaching 
such subjects as are required for admission to college, 
technical school, and normal school, including reasonable 
instruction in the constitution of the United States and 
in the constitution of New Hampshire, such high school or 
academy to be approved by the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion as complying with the requirements of this section. 
And said superintendent is authorized to approve a school 
maintaining any part of such course, for the part so main- 
tained." Laws of 1901, Chapter 96. 

DEFINITIONS OP TERMS USED. 

State Program. The pamphlet entitled "Program of 
Studies for the Secondary Schools of New Hampshire." 
This standard program provides a guide for administra- 
tive officers and is suggestive rather than mandatory. 

Approved Program. The whole outline of work con- 
templated by an institution. It should be called The Pro- 
gram of the School, and not The Course of Study or the 
Curricula. 

Curricuhim. A portion or division of the program de- 
scribing a particular line of work to be followed through- 
out the number of years that the program contemplates. 

Suhject. A separate branch of learning as Latin, sci- 
ence or history. 



8 

Course. The work in a particular subject within a 
single year. 

Study. A division of a subject or of a course, as log- 
arithms or Latin prose composition. 

Unit. A single course pursued not less than four pe- 
riods a week for one school year of not less than thirty-six 
weeks ; in certain cases a unit may be made up of two con- 
secutive courses in allied subjects, each course being one 
semester in length. 

Semester. One-half year of school work. 

Time-table. The daily program or order of exercises of 
the school. 

Period. A regular sub-division of the time-table. 

Pupil. A general term for all persons enrolled as mem- 
bers in elementary or secondary schools. 

Student. A general term for all persons enrolled as 
members in colleges, normal schools, or other post- 
secondary institutions. 

Mark. A general term to denote any numeral, letter or 
other character used in records, as "T," for tardy; "E," 
for excellent; "74," for 74%, etc. 

Passing Mark. The minimum standard for passing 
work. Usually 70. 

Bank. Any mark given in percentage form to denote 
the relative quality of the work done. 

Grades. Conventional marks used in some schools to 
indicate groups of excellence, as ''A," ''B," "C," ''D," 
and^E." 

Standards. The minimum requirements of excellency 
in the various courses upon which approval is given by the 
state Department of Education. 



PART I. 
The Secondary School Characterized. 



CHAPTER I. 



The Approval of Secondary Schools. 
The Standards in Brief. 

Secondary schools will be approved under the following 
conditions : 

(1) They must follow a program adopted by the gov- 
erning board and approved by the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation. 

(2) They must employ a staff of teachers with sufficient 
qualifications. 

(3) They must provide a suitable building for instruc- 
tion and equipment adequate for the courses proposed. 

(4) They must show that their organization follows 
regular and proper standards. 

(5) They must secure efficient administration. 

The approval of schools expires August 31st, annually, 
but for cause is subject to review and revocation at any 
time. 

For convenience, schools are listed in six classes. Class 
A includes all schools with complete secondary programs. 
The other classes, B to F, in alphabetical order show that 
the program is incomplete by one to five years. To the 
class letter may be attached a numeral to show the number 
of years in the approved program. 

The Standards in Detail. 

Programs. It is to be emphasized that the program here 
given is recommended but is not obligatory. A school 



10 

board may adopt for its schools any program that it wishes, 
provided that the subjects required by law -are included. 
(1901, 92:6, with amendments.) All such programs pre- 
pared for secondary schools will be approved by the De- 
partment of Education, if they meet the reasonable stand- 
ards for secondary schools. (1901, 96 A with amendments.) 
Among the standards by which secondary programs will 
be tested are the following: 

1. Four unit courses in admitted secondary subjects 
per year form the minimum basis of each program, though 
each curriculum should contain optional and required 
non-unit courses. These latter need not be given daily. 

2. To avoid a program narrow in scope, each pupil 
should pursue courses in each of several fields of knowledge, 
as English, history, science, mathematics, foreign lan- 
guage and practical arts. 

3. To avoid a smattering of knowledge, each pupil 
should carry work in some subjects for three or four years, 
or to a point of definite mastery. See Secondary Circular 
No. 1. 

4. The program must be economical according to the 
accumulated experience of the best schools of the state. 
A program which proposes to do work in algebra or in 
French for two or three years, which other schools do in 
one or two years, will be viewed with suspicion. Similarly, 
courses may not be given which merely repeat formal drill 
on the fundamental principles of a subject when the work 
to be educational should progress into purposeful activity. 
Experience has shown that two courses in bookkeeping or 
in stenography exhaust the possibility of gainful drill. If 
a third course in either is given, it should be in the actual 
application under real conditions of the principles learned. 

5. The curricula of the school program should be equal 
in value, and constituent unit courses should merit equal 
respect. There should be no easy curricula or snap 
courses. 

6. A school which offers a six-year program to be ap- 



11 

proved must show clearly that it accomplishes more work 
and carries work farther than a school with a four-year 
program. A school which adds to an unchanged high 
school program two introductory years filled with arti- 
ficial non-continuous courses will be approved for four 
years only. A six-year program should have these two 
characteristics: (a) It should add a year to the pupil's 
program by carrying four subjects a year beyond the 
common high school point of conclusion, (b) It should 
also enrich the usual high school program of each pupil 
by four courses, valuable but not of necessity courses 
which are in a sequence. This will be held as the con- 
clusive test of all six-year programs presented for ap- 
proval: Does the program actually carry the pupil a year 
farther in his work than did our earlier programs? 

Teachers. 

General Education Required. Teachers must have a 
bachelor's degree from an approved college. Except that: 

(1) Teachers who have studied four full years in ap- 
proved schools of post-secondary grade. 

(2) Teachers of modern languages who have received 
adequate European or other training. Individual cases 
to be approved by the Department. Provided in this and 
the three cases following that not less than eighty per cent, 
of their teaching be in their specialized subject. 

(3) Teachers of domestic arts and of commerce who 
have pursued at least three full years of post-secondary 
study in approved special institutions. 

(4) Teachers of commerce who have pursued at least 
two full years of post-secondary study in commerce in 
approved special institutions. In addition, they must 
have two years of general post-secondary study, of office 
work or of successful experience in teaching. 

(5) Teachers of mechanic arts with scholastic and 
practical preparation sufficient for needs of their work. 
Individual cases to be approved by the Department. 



12 

(6) Teachers holding Grade B certificates whose work 
is restricted to grades seven to nine except as specifically 
approved. 

(7) Teachers who have one, two or three years of 
post-secondary study in approved institutions may be ap- 
proved to teach courses not above the corresponding years 
of the secondary program. 

(8) Teachers who fail to meet the above qualifica- 
tions but have taught with success in approved New 
Hampshire secondary schools. Individual cases to be 
approved and the courses that may be taught to be speci- 
fied by the Department. 

Special Preparation Required. Teachers must be pre- 
pared by two or more years of post-secondary study of 
each subject they propose to teach, such study to include 
the branches of the subject presented in the secondary 
courses. Except that: 

(1) Teachers who have but one or two classes in a 
subject may be prepared by one year of post-secondary 
study of that subject. 

(2) Each year of post-secondary study may be re- 
placed by two years of successful teaching of the subject 
in approved secondary schools. 

(3) For inexperienced teachers, the Department may 
waive the minimum requirement for one class only. Indi- 
vidual cases to be approved. 

Equipment. 

The Commissioner of Education may refuse approval 
to any school housed in an unwholesome building or one 
which makes satisfactory work impossible. 

For each of the courses approved, the school must pos- 
sess, or have the use of, such texts, reference books, 
maps, laboratory and school shop equipment as are 
needed for standard work along the proposed lines. The 
equipment is in general indicated in the outline of the 
general course. 



13 



Organization. 



A school is not a collection of classes, but an organiza- 
tion where all are working with the same ideals for a 
common end and the headmaster must organize it for 
this purpose. 

He should unify his school. By the general exercises 
of the school, by its organizations for special interests, by 
its public exhibitions, the headmaster makes of his school 
a social unit. He should regard it as one of his peculiar 
duties so to form and guide the various clubs, teams and 
other interests of his school that they become powerful 
factors in its life and, though he reserves to himself the 
control, he should so divide the work that each assistant 
teacher has some responsible part in the social organiza- 
tion of the school. 

He should know his pupils. The headmaster must deal 
with parents, teachers and pupils and unite their diverse 
interests so that all may work in unison in their common 
task. By patient study he must learn the characteristics 
of his pupils, their ideals and ambitions and the condi- 
tions of their home life, and he must do this through a real 
interest in all that concerns them. An interested teacher 
can do more than a truant officer to keep pupils in school. 

He should make effective his authority. The headmas- 
ter as disciplinary head of the school is to be held respon- 
sible for the conduct of the pupils in the building and 
basements, on the playground and on the streets as they 
come to the school and return to their homes. He mu^t 
strengthen the control of his assistant teachers and lead 
them into better methods of solving school difficulties, 
while he is constantly alert that full justice be done to 
pupil as well as to teacher. 

He should he efficient in the management of his office. 
His records should be kept with system and dispatch, he 
should not permit desultory attendance, he should insist 



14 

that pupils do reasonable work, that they follow the pre- 
scribed curricula and that they promptly make up defi- 
cient work. He should prepare an economical time-table 
and plan the work of the school to avoid confusion and 
waste of time and effort. 

In particular, the marking system and the recorded 
ranks are in his charge. He should provide that the school 
has a marking system thoroughly understood by all teach- 
ers and uniformly administered by them. He should check 
any individual modifications of this system and refuse to 
record ranks that express the carelessness or mental vaga- 
ries of the teachers. It must be emphasized that no work 
is to be recorded except it be a judicial statement of fact, 
and when recorded it must stand as a permanent school 
record. The headmaster must protect pupil and school 
from recorded ranks too high or too low for complete jus- 
tice. 

Admimstration. 

The administration of the work in public secondary 
schools is a task in which school board, superintendent, 
headmaster and teachers have definite parts; for admin- 
istration includes the government, the supervision, the or- 
ganization of the schools and the instruction of the pupils. 

The Governmeoit. In the administration of the schools, 
the school board is the governing body. It is subject only 
to the instructions and expressed wishes of the electorate, 
to the laws of the state and to the rules and regulations 
of the state board of education. It is a legislative and 
judicial body, but not an executive one. It gives general 
directions and rules for the administration of the schools 
and it passes judgment on the results obtained. No mem- 
ber may assume the power of supervision, organization or 
instruction, except by vote of the board. 

The Supervision. In the administration of the schools, 
the superintendent is the supervisory and executive offi- 



15 

cer. As the agent of the state board of education and of 
the school board, he governs the schools, makes concrete 
the general directions given him and secures the enforce- 
ment of the school laws of the state and the rules and reg- 
ulations of the state board and the school board. The 
supervision of the schools is his particular duty. He must 
outline the material for instruction, direct the methods of 
teaching and judge both the efficiency of the teaching and 
the quality of the work done. He must also organize his 
school system by keeping its purposes and ideals before 
teachers, pupils and citizens — so as to harmonize all in- 
terests and unify the aims of the schools. He must instruct 
his teachers in the psychology and pedagogy of their work 
and see that they are familiar with the advances made 
in the science and practice of teaching. 

The Organization. In the administration of the schools, 
the headmaster's chief work is organization. Under the 
general direction of the school board as interpreted by the 
superintendent, he governs his school and aids the super- 
intendent in the supervision of its work. He may also 
be a teacher of classes, but his primary duty is the organ- 
ization of his school. Though the superintendent may at 
any time review the details of organization, it should 
seldom be necessary for him to do so. He should rather 
present the general scheme so that the headmaster be given 
great freedom in working out the details, as he is to be 
held strictly responsible for results. 

The Instruction. In the administration of the schools, 
the teacher's chief duty is instruction. She must govern 
her room, supervise the work of her pupils and organize 
her classes, but she is primarily a teacher. 



16 
CHAPTER II. 



The Junior High School. 
Definition. 

The standard elementary program recommends that the 
work of the lower grades be so effectively presented that 
elementary courses are completed with the sixth school 
year. The present program recommends that the sec- 
ondary schools he so reorganized that they present to the 
pupils in Grades VII, VIII, IX and X secondary courses 
in a concrete and practical form and that they group in 
the two final years of the secondary school, courses de- 
signed to organize and make systematic the subject matter 
of various lines of study. The term junior high school is 
used to designate the earlier years of such a reorganized 
secondary program. 

The Program. 

The junior high school program consists of four unit 
courses, together with B and C subjects. The A sub- 
jects are those requiring drill and systematic training. 
The B subjects consist of general exercises and the organ- 
ization of school activities. The C subjects include liter- 
ature and reading for information and appreciation. See 
the chapter on "B and C Subjects" and pages 10 and 11 of 
the elementary program. The four recommended unit 
courses for Years I and II are history, French, mathe- 
matics and a half-unit of elementary science with a half- 
unit of practical arts. English is not approved as a unit 
subject for these two years but, as a B and C subject, 
should be a part of the work of all pupils. 

It can be seen that the constant work in English re- 
quired of all pupils should in part receive attention in 
periods of each of the classes mentioned above. Formal 



17 

instruction in the mechanics of English is not suited to 
pupils of these years, but practice should be constant, 
with insistence on correct habits of expression, and liberal 
time should be given to the enjoyment of literature, to rec- 
itations by pupils, to dramatization and to eifective oral 
reading. Classroom work in books of the formal "First 
Year English" type has no place in the junior high school. 
During these four years all pupils should carry on their 
work in gardening, and all girls their work in cooking and 
sewing, and in these activities the school is to show inter- 
est. 

The School Day. 

So far as the school organization will allow, supervised 
school study should be emphasized in Years I to IV in the 
secondary school. Periods should be extended and the 
school day lengthened until all work is in the classroom 
and the pupil goes home free for his home duties and his 
personal plans. The old-time recitation should seldom be 
seen and all classrooms should become laboratories for 
study and participatory activities. Each pupil's school 
day should be completely divided among the A, B and C 
subjects of his program, with no vacant, unorganized 
periods. See elementary program, pages 222 to 224. 

Eleme7itary Suhjects. b-^'' ' 

The junior high school is a secondary school and follows 
the completion of elementary subjects. Its program con- 
tains the application of the subjects of the elementary pro- 
gram but may not include formal courses in arithmetic, 
geography, grammar, reading and the other fundamental 
courses. It is to be noted that the arithmetic merges into 
the secondary school mathematics of these years, that 
geography continues in the study of current history, that 
grammar is expanded in the French course and that the 
program provides for such drill as is needed in reading, 
writing and spelling. "Whenever it becomes apparent that 



18 

junior high school pupils have forgotten the process of 
computing simple interest or of dividing fractions, or of 
spelling correctly "grammar" and "separate" or of dis- 
tinguishing between the common parts of speech, the B 
periods should be devoted to drill in the recovery of these 
lost arts. Elementary subjects should not be retaught. 
They should be redrilled and a renewed insistence placed 
upon their correct use. The high school must not allow 
pupils to forget the knowledge and practice of the ele- 
mentary school. 

Tests of Completion. 

The junior high school does not teach reading and his- 
tory, spelling, handwriting, composition, grammar and 
language, physiology and civil government by reviewing 
textbooks but by so organizing itself that the school at all 
times passes with success the junior high school tests which 
follow. 

Reading and history should be tested by the knowledge 
that pupils have of things of vital interest, by the papers, 
magazines and books that appear in the schoolroom and 
by their apparent use, by determining what pupils read 
and by their use of the local library. 

Spelling, handwriting, composition, grammar and lan- 
guage should be tested by the ordinary use of English as it 
appears in school papers and notebooks, in demonstrations 
and other board work, in the English expression of the 
classroom, of the school corridor and of the playground. 

Physiology should be tested by the results that it has 
produced in establishing habits of correct living. The 
subject is not worthy of approval in schools where the 
teeth, or hands, or persons of pupils lack cleanliness, 
where pupils sit in bad posture and wear their rubbers, 
where schoolroom light and ventilation is defective, where 
noon lunches are of unsuitable material and are bolted 
rather than eaten, and where pupils pass the intermissions 
grouped in parallel or in series in place of seeking fresh 



19 

« 

air. When the register shows poor attendance, with many 
tardinesses and dismissals, it indicates that the study of 
hygiene has not become effective. 

Civil government should be tested by the respect which 
it seems pupils hold for themselves, for each other, for 
their teachers and those in authority. The subject is not 
worthy of approval where pupils are dishonest or indeco- 
rous in the classroom, where they are rude and silly in 
their behavior to each other and to their teachers, where 
the ordinary amenities of cultured society are lacking, 
where school desks are in disorder and paper thrown upon 
the floors and yard, where school books and other prop- 
erty are abused and basement walls marked and defaced, 
where pupils cross the school lawn and avoid the paths, 
where they are rough and boisterous on the street and in 
the cars as they come to school, where respect and rever- 
ence are so absent that profanity is heard on the play- 
ground, the school Bible is used for a paper weight and 
the flag is carried with indifference. Where these things 
occur, civil government has failed to accomplish its full 
purpose. 

The junior high school should not teach or reteach these 
elementary subjects but it is to insist that the knowledge 
brought from the lower grades be retained and that forms 
of correct expression become habitual. 

Fcdlure or Success. 

The junior high school will fail whenever teachers are 
allowed to reteach elementary subjects in the hope that 
perfection will be reached instead of insisting that knowl- 
edge acquired in the lower grades be retained and used 
correctly and with precision in the habits of personal ex- 
pression and in the duties of the schoolroom. 

The junior high school will fail when the program is 
composed of the traditional high school subjects taught 
in a formal way by teachers who have no sympathy with 
the early adolescent years and who feel a loss of dignity 



20 

when they teach to young pupils the subjects in which such 
pupils are properly interested. 

The junior high school will succeed when to the pupils 
of these years is opened the wealth of knowledge that has 
been concealed in formal courses offered in high schools of 
the older type. 

The junior high school will succeed when the pupils are 
taught by the best methods of successful teachers in the 
upper elementary grades. 

For success, the junior high school must borrow its con- 
tent for instruction from the high school and its teaching 
method from the elementary school. The keynote of suc- 
cess with the junior high school is personal interested 
work with the individual pupil. 



CHAPTER III. 



High School Subjects Grouped. 

In the growing complexities of civilized life, constant 
and insistent demands are being made upon all schools to 
add new subjects to their programs and new activities to 
their daily schedules. These additions are desirable but 
it is constantly necessary to classify them, to judge their 
comparative values and to harmonize them in the school 
organization. To this end, in our programs the studies 
of the school are divided into three groups. A, B and C. 

Group A. 

The subjects listed here call for systematic instruction 
and drill. They will be assigned a regular place on the 
time-table with daily recitations or class exercises. These 
are the unit subjects of the program. 



21 

In some schools, fortunately a decreasing number, these 
are the only subjects to which the school gives serious 
consideration. In these schools, the headmaster keeps the 
records and maintains discipline. The science teacher 
teaches science, the mathematics teacher teaches mathe- 
matics and the English teacher teaches English, but no 
one teaches primarily boys and girls. As a result, knowl- 
edge is imparted but school spirit is not developed, ideals 
and aims are not inculcated or unified and the school fails 
of its high purpose. 

In such institutions, there is a group of instructors but 
no teaching stajEf. There are several classes but no school. 
Every high school should be organized for ultra-program 
activities and teachers and pupils should regard these as 
vital parts of the larger school program. This should be 
the case throughout the six years of the secondary pro- 
gram but the need is so insistent during the first four of 
these years, that is, the junior high school years, that the 
program which follows^ will give definite place in these 
years to B and C subjects. 

Group B. 

These subjects, though in some instances requiring sys- 
tematic development, do not require daily instruction and 
drill. They are general school exercises and in presenta- 
tion often call for private and personal application. 

They should be a part of the school organization for the 
first four' years of the program and should have recogni- 
tion on the time-table. Two twenty-minute periods a day 
are recommended, though accommodation should be se- 
cured for long period in subjects like drawing. Desirable 
periods are at the opening and close of morning and after- 
noon sessions of the school. 

These subjects should include the following: (1) Per- 
sonal Periods. There should be much personal and group 
instruction and insistence on hygiene, health, habits, man- 
ners and morals. 



22 

In this instruction, there can be no formal outline and 
no definite, determined plan. As the teachers study their 
pupils in the formal and informal relations of the school 
and the home, they should be alert to exemplify right 
personal reactions, to warn and to advise, to guide and 
to direct. The school staff should meet frequently to 
study and discuss their pupils as persons and not merely 
as recipients of ranks which record varying degrees of 
failure in assimilating the information of textbooks. 

It is a growing custom for teachers to be directed to this 
work and to unite in it so that in some schools the pupils 
are given reports which indicate their rank in meeting the 
standards of wholesome and social living. It is recom- 
mended that each teacher devote a section of a private 
record or memorandum to each of her pupils and there 
note as occasion arises, the details to be considered in these 
private conferences. In small groups, by brief talks, 
teachers should instruct pupils with particular attention 
to personal help and to the amenities of social behavior. 
It is a duty then of all teachers in a most intimate way to 
point out to individual pupils the changes that they should 
make in habits and in manners as they grow into efficient 
manhood and womanhood. It is inconceivable that schools 
should longer take pride in scholastic records when they 
allow pupils to retain unwholesome habits and uncouth 
mannerisms. That a pupil should be reproved for a mis- 
placed French accent, while his uncared-for teeth are en- 
dured in silence, that a pupil may be taught the correct 
atomic weights and not be taught to address a stranger 
with quiet good breeding, that a pupil may be told of his 
mistakes in algebra and not told of bizarre phrases and 
awkward gestures, which have become habitual to him, is to 
tithe mint and cummin. This will be no longer possible 
when personal periods are required in the school organiza- 
tion. 

(2) Drill Periods. All recitations, oral or written, and 
all exercises must show the completion of elementary sub- 



23 

jects. Individual deficiencies in spelling, composition, 
arithmetic, etc., may be met by personal drill. 

In any well-ordered system, pupils come from the ele- 
mentary schools with sufficient knowledge of arithmetic, 
grammar, spelling, writing and other school practices. A 
secondary school which allows this knowledge to be for- 
gotten and these habits to fail through disuse is seriously 
at fault. No written work in any subject, either at the 
board or at the desk, should be accepted until it is legibly 
and neatly written, correctly spelled and expressed and, 
similarly, all oral recitations must be in clear and expres- 
sive English. For pupils negligent or forgetful, there 
should be individual and group drill but this is distinctly 
a corrective exercise personal in its application. In Eng- 
lish classes, most of the composition work will be actual 
drill and practice work in the classroom under the guid- 
ance of the teacher. 

(3) Cultural Periods. These are periods for the study 
of literature for expression, for drawing, for singing and 
for the study of current history. Each day the news of the 
world should be considered and the vital study of geogra- 
phy continued. 

In the cultural periods, personal ideals are developed 
and school spirit is organized. For these a few minutes at 
the opening and at the close of the day are sufficient. Aside 
from the study of music, there should be much singing in 
the high school. The great songs and hymns should be 
known and loved. The pictures of the schoolrooms should 
be appreciated and pupils made familiar with the story 
which they tell. In cultural periods, the school should be 
a large family to whose information and enjoyment pupils 
aione and in groups make contributions. The news of the 
world, of the town and of the school circle should be dis- 
cussed, reports made and recitations given. The devotional 
exercises of the school should not be of the stereotyped 
form but should be characterized by simplicity and rever- 
ence. For this the closing of the school day is particularly 



24 

appropriate. By brief inspirational talks, the headmaster 
of the school can do much to formulate school ideals. Il- 
lustrations of this are the talks given by Superintendent 
J. H. Philipps gathered in his book, entitled "Old Tales 
and Modern Ideals, ' ' and by J. A. Mowry in ' ' Talks to My 
Boys." 

(4) Organization Periods. It is to be emphasized that 
the school is not only a thinking body but a working body 
and frequently it should be organized for some specific 
task. Commonly, schools are organized to support athletic 
teams and occasionally to present a dramatic production. 
To this should be added the social and productive work of 
the school. The garden plans and various forms of relief 
work and united social service when needed are indications 
of the extent of this field. 

Group C. 

The term "well read" should characterize high school 
pupils as it always has characterized scholars. The in- 
terests of pupils in agriculture, in science, in domestic arts, 
should result in large reading in the books and general 
magazines devoted to these subjects. The study of French 
or of Spanish should produce a reading interest in all that 
concerns these people and these countries. "Outside read- 
ing" is a vital part, not of the work of English classes 
alone but of the work of all subjects and should be a re- 
quirement in the outline for each course. Group C in- 
cludes the wide reading of the educated pupil and the 
specific reading upon subjects that he studies. 

The school program should make provision for this read- 
ing. An opportunity should be given pupils to discuss 
their reading with their teachers and to report to their 
interested classmates. The school reading table or the 
school library should provide for this need and much work 
by pupils and by classes, with their teachers, should be 
done at the public library. 



25 

CHAPTER IV. 



The Daily Time-table. 

'The High School "Recitation.'' 

In our high schools, it has been customary to divide a 
:five-hour day into six short periods. In each of four of 
these periods called "recitations," the pupils in a body 
meet the teacher of the subject; in order that she may de- 
vote the greater part of the period to attempting to make 
them recall and repeat the statements made by an author 
in a book called the textbook. During two periods called 
"'study" periods, the pupil in a general room prepares his 
assignment and without the help of the teacher attempts 
to solve difficulties inherent to the assimilation of new 
material. At the close of the day's session, the pupil takes 
"home his textbook and is directed to devote to further 
preparation for the recitation period of the next day, two 
or three hours of intensive study and practice. This ex- 
ercise is called "home study." It can readily be seen that 
this method, though still prevalent, is neither economical nor 
efficient. It is not economical, as the teacher cannot profit- 
ably spend forty minutes daily in testing the proficiency 
of pupils and making assignments. It is not economical 
since during time supposed to be devoted to intensive study 
the pupil is away from the primary direction of his teacher 
and the secondary help of reference books and school equip- 
ment, for he is at home in an undirected study room. For 
this reason, for young pupils, home study and unguided 
school study is seldom of real value. The pupils' study 
periods are periods devoted to research, to orderly ar- 
rangement and to practice and it is for these activities that 
there is the greatest need of the personal presence of the 
teacher. That this condition is faulty has long been recog- 
nized by thoughtful teachers and both the Department of 
Education and the Educational Council by circulars and 



26 

programs have urged a change. In no school should the 
daily ' ' recitation, ' ' which is devoted mainly to questions by 
instructur and answers by pupils on the statements of 
specific textbook pages, be longer countenanced. Superin- 
tendents and headmasters who permit new teachers to ac- 
quire this teaching habit or who do not direct experienced 
teachers into a better process are negligent to a large 
degree. 

Project Periods. 

During the last few years, the practical arts in various 
forms have firmly established their position in our sec- 
ondary program. The courses offered in agriculture, 
domestic arts, manual arts and some of those in commerce, 
have kept themselves free from the formalized recitation. 
Moreover, many courses in science, through the influence 
of the laboratory, and most courses in American constitu- 
tional history, through the interest of the teacher, have 
laid aside the recitation periods and provided in their place 
project periods. The teachers of other subjects should study 
with care the successful methods used in these courses and 
should imitate the class technique of well-taught classes in 
the shop, the field and the laboratory. 

Technique. 

The work set for the class should be divided not into 
page assignments but into projects or topics. These may 
be longer or shorter, for an hour, a week or a month, as 
the subject demands. Teacher and class should give little 
time to tests and to recitations but together should study 
and work until the project is completed. In general, all 
work which requires guidance and class direction that effi- 
cient results be obtained and unnecessary habits be not 
formed, should be done in the classroom with the teacher. 
General reading may be done outside and when necessary 
specific projects completed there but, ordinarily, neither 



27 

home work nor written examinations is desirable. In fact, 
except when a formal test is needed, there should be little 
writing by pupils except that done in the classroom and all 
this writing should be judged and corrected in the class- 
room as written. 

A Work Room. 

It is held that the class should meet in a work room 
rather than a recitation room and should combine class 
with group and individual help and instruction. In this 
room, the pupils are learning the lesson and the teacher is 
guiding and directing them. The work will vary from 
hour to hour. 

(1) Instruction. In work periods, the teacher will first 
present the main topic to the entire class and as the work 
progresses will re-present it to groups of slower pupils and 
to individuals. She will devote small time to the few best 
pupils but will guide them with individual encouragement 
to more advanced work than is possible for the class as a 
whole. She will spend more time with the large body of 
average pupils. These vary little in ability and are open 
to group instruction. She will spend much patient time 
with the poorest pupils as individuals, making full use of 
the principles of drill with repetition and practice. 

(2) Drill. In work periods, much time must be given 
to drill but drill given only to pupils who fail in the essen- 
tial reactions desired. A drill group should always exclude 
pupils who have reached the degree of perfection sought. 
The drill may be on new material of the subject presented, 
as on the Latin vocabularies and the idioms in Latin 
grammar or on any weakness observed in other lines, as in 
spelling, in writing and in arithmetic. The B practice 
period for the retention of elementary subjects mentioned 
in the former chapter should not require a separate place 
on the school time-table but should be incidental to the 



28 

various courses. Repetition is not sufficient. For effective 
drill, the repetition must be with improvement and as a 
teaching exercise must be preceded by participatory activ- 
ity and followed by habitual and correct use. 

(3) Practice and Correction. In work periods, the 
pupils will spend much time in practice work under the 
guidance of the teacher. It is her function to correct errors 
before unfortunate habits are formed. In particular, in 
oral and written work errors should be noted as they are 
made and correct forms required. The chief purpose of 
practice periods is to fix correct habits of work and expres- 
sion. 

(4) Tests. In work periods, some time must be given 
to testing results. This need seldom be by formal examina- 
tion or for the whole class as a unit but by simple tests 
whenever a topic or subject is believed to be completed. 
Their purpose is to determine which pupils need additional 
practice rather than to secure for all pupils formal ranks. 

Supervised Study. 

Many attempts at supervised study have failed because 
teachers were unable to teach pupils how to study or to 
demonstrate the process. Supervised study is certain to 
fail whenever the teacher allows herself to serve as a dic- 
tionary and encyclopedia and an answer book to the pupils 
of her class. She is not to give them information but to 
direct them to its acquisition. Teachers are recommended 
to see Circular No. 73, "The Long School Day in Win- 
chester High School," and No. 76, ''Physics Without As- 
signments for Study at Home." See also Hall-Quest's 
"Supervised Study" and the appropriate chapter in 
Parker's "The Method of Teaching in High Schools." 

A number of schools have reported success where the 
attention of pupils has been directed to habits of study by 



29 

the class use of one of the simpler texts on the subject, 
as Whipple's "How to Study," Sord wick's "How to 
Study and What to Study," but more important than this 
is the study method employed by the teacher herself as she 
works with the class. If she knows how to study, how to 
approach, to master and to use new information, the class 
will follow with ready imitation. 

The Work Periods. 

It is entirely possible, as shown in our schoolrooms, for 
prepared and alert teachers to carry out with success work 
of the kind described with classes of as many as thirty pu- 
pils. It is not necessary that these 3)upils be in a single 
class but the work period may unite allied classes as Latin 
III and Latin tV or Mathematics I and Mathematics II. 
With group instruction for each class in small schools this 
arrangement is necessary and desirable. The work periods 
should be of sufficient length so that all of the work re- 
quired be done in the classroom. This would usually mean 
a period from seventy-five to ninety minutes in length. 

The School Day. 

The school day should be so arranged that all school 
work on unit classes, all developed school activities, to- 
gether with necessary periods for relaxation and needed 
exercise, be completed in a school day and the pupils go 
home free from school requirements for the pleasures and 
duties of the home and social living. 

For this a seven-hour day, from 8 :30 to 3 :30, which in- 
cludes the luncheon period, is sufficient and is all that 
should be required of the child in the junior high school 
years. Schools may with safety add for the mature pupils 
of classes V and VI an hour of home work but even this 
is of doubtful value. 

There is a pronounced tendency in our schools to have 
a two-session day, to lengthen this to six full hours of 



30 

school work, to drop the old-time recess, to organize the 
noon hour with prepared and supervised luncheons, and 
to arrange for school periods an hour or more in length 
with supervised study and all work done during school 
hours. 

A Suggested Time-Tahle. 

A seven-hour school day permits four seventy-five or 
eighty minute work periods like those described in this 
chapter, together with suitable periods for the school 
luncheon, for physical exercises and relaxation and for 
school organizations. A typical time-table for a school 
with a six-year program., five teachers and sixty to one 
hundred pupils is given for illustration. The plan is ap- 
plicable, with modifications, for larger schools since in 
large schools the pupils would meet in smaller groups for 
some of the general periods : 

First Period, 8.30 to 8.45 Opening Exercises. 

Second Period, 8.45 to 10.05 First Work Period. 

Third Period, 10.05 to 10.10 .Relaxation. 

Fourth Period, 10.10 to 11.30 Second Work Period. 

Fifth Period, 11.30 to 12.15 Luncheon and Physical 

Sixth Period, 12.15 to 1.35 Third Work Period. 

Seventh Period, 1.35 to 1.40 Relaxation. 

Eighth Period, 1.40 to 3.00 Fourth Work Period. 

Ninth Period, 3.00 to 3.30 Organization Period. 

Period I. The school opens at 8.30 with one of the school 
songs, for every school should have its own, with other 
patriotic and inspirational songs, with the salute of the flag 
and such other exercises as will start the school happily 
and busily at its day 's work. Here should come the reports 
and discussions of the important events in the school world 
and the larger world outside. The ideal is that of a large 
family coming together in the morning with cordial greet- 
ings, with a discussion of common interests and plans for 
the day's work. The teachers are but leaders and inter- 



31 

ested members of this family. These exercises should never 
become formalized and should differ from morning to 
morning. Assignments for the day may be made but this 
is no time for school discipline or formal didactics. 

Periods II, IV, VI and VIII. These are the four work 
periods of the day. They give time for the completion of 
A or unit subjects, together with the incidental B and C 
subjects. 

Periods III and VII. These are brief relaxation 
periods when all windows are opened and pupils are at 
ease. In winter months, they may be lengthened for brief 
intensive physical drill and setting up exercises. 

Period V. This is a period for the noon luncheon and 
the development of social interests. The luncheon should 
be light but satisfying with at least one hot dish served by 
the school, supplemented by the personal luncheon of the 
pupils. The pupils should be seated with the teachers at 
tables or desks with attention to the customs which health 
demands and custom prescribes. There should be light 
games, dancing, singing and practice in dramatization. 
When possible, this should be out of doors but in inclement 
weather the building may be used. All of this calls for or- 
ganization, for leaders from among the pupils and gives 
the teachers an unrivaled opportunity by suggestion, by 
guidance and by demonstr3,tion to teach to the school les- 
sons in physiology, in civics, in manners and morals, an 
opportunity that has been wanting in most secondary 
school programs. 

Period IX. This is a serious part of the day. The head- 
master frequently will talk to his school on subjects which 
concern its welfare and the advancement of its pupils. The 
results accomplished in separate classes will be reported by 
competent pupils. The school will be organized for new 
activities, failures pointed out and successes applauded. 



32 

It will be a period for appreciation through the presenta- 
tion to the school of some masterpiece in art until the 
school in common knows and feels the message of a great 
picture or of some great musical composition or of some 
poem, some speech or some dramatic production. It will 
be the period for recitations by the pupils, for songs by 
them, for the presentation of dramatic scenes. On one day 
a new poem — the best magazine poem of the month — will 
be taught with appreciation and will be memorized. On 
another day, a great hymn will be learned and these will 
be used at opening periods until they can never be forgot- 
ten. The period should close with the quiet devotional 
exercises of the day. The plan will vary from day to day 
and often will be in separate rooms with teachers assigned 
for single groups. Its purpose is to harmonize and unify 
the whole organization, to develop school spirit with re- 
spect for one's fellows and a feeling of individual respon- 
sibility. If Waterloo was won at Eton, it was because the 
Eton masters organized boys into a society. 

The Four Work Periods. 

The hypothetical school under discussion may have a 
program composed of the agricultural curriculum for boys 
and the liberal domestic arts curriculum for girls and may 
have a teaching staff of five ; a college graduate of agricul- 
ture, one of domestic arts, a normal school graduate trained 
for junior high school work and two college graduates 
equipped for academic subjects. Since the school is small, 
by the combination of classes a number of courses need be 
given only on alternate years and two classes in the same 
subject may work together in a common work period. The 
courses which by alternation need not be given this year 
in Year IV are field crops and iron work, masterpieces of 
music and art, nursing and physiology, and physics, in 
Year V, the common sciences, and in Year VI, household 
management, farm organization and management and roads 
and forestry. The program would allow the following 



33 

classes to each teacher during the four work periods. It 
will be seen that there are no vacant periods but all pupils 
and all teachers are constantly occupied. 

Fiist Period. 

Teacher A. V and VI, tools and engineering, (boys) 

Teacher B. I and II, cooking and sewing, Monday and 
Wednesday. 
Elementary science, Tuesday, Thursday, Fri- 
day, (girls) 

Teacher C. I and II, manual training, Monday and 
Wednesday. 
Elementary science, Tuesday, Thursday, Fri- 
day, (boys) 

Teacher D. Ill and lY, history of civilization. 

Teacher E. V and VI, Greek and Koman literature, (girls) 

Second Period. 

Teacher A. Ill and IV, woodwork, (boys) 
Teacher B. VI, economics and business practices. 
Teacher C. I and II, history and civics. 
Teacher D. V, algebra and geometry. 
Teacher E. Ill and IV, French, (girls) 

Third Period. 

Teacher A. V and VI, animal husbandry, (boys) 
Teacher B. V and VI, household organization, (girls) 
Teacher C. II, mathematics. 
Teacher D. I. mathematics. 
Teacher E. Ill and IV, English. 

Fourth Period 

Teacher A. Ill and IV, soils and horticulture, (boys) 
Teacher B. Ill and IV, household appliances, (girls) 
Teacher C. I and II, French. 

Teacher D. VI, United States constitutional historv. 
Teacher E. V, English. 



34 
CHAPTER V. 



The Evaluation of School Work. 

Scholastic Ranks. "We are now concerned only with the 
scholastic ranks. These represent accomplishment alone. 
They do not indicate what the pupil can do nor what he 
ought to do. They represent what a pupil has done. They 
show relative degree of success in the completion of work 
assigned the class by the teacher. 

The Present Custom. It is the custom of many teachers 
to wait until the end of the half term and then assign the 
ranks by their best judgment according to their remem- 
brance of the work done. Still more teachers stand with 
call book in hand and at the close of each individual reci- 
tation record therein its value. Both methods are unsatis- 
factory. The former reflects the carelessness, the indiffer- 
ence or the varying moods of the teacher. The latter 
distracts the teacher's attention from the class, puts the 
emphasis on form rather than substance and usually results 
in ranks modified by the teacher's conception of the pupil 
and his work. 

This method was possible as long as teachers were satis- 
fied with a recitation each day, a period for hearing the 
lesson; but in laboratory science and in the practical arts, 
a daily recitation is inconceivable and ranks must be as- 
signed in terms of laboratory exercises, projects and other 
accomplishments. Not only in the newer subjects but in 
the traditional ones, the adoption of supervised study and 
the principles of Project Periods has caused vital teaching 
to replace the old-time daily recitation, and calls for a re- 
vision of present marking systems. 

The Suggested Plan. Teachers should generally replace 
these methods by obtaining ranks from a combination of 
the results of a considerable number of carefully graded 



35 

tests based upon definite accomplishment. An illustration 
may be taken from a first-year history class. During the 
first week with a new class, the teacher devotes herself to 
teaching, she interests her class in the subject, she becomes 
acquainted with her pupils but she does not consciously 
evaluate their daily efforts. At the end of the week she 
takes her class list and assigns the value which she thinks 
each pupil deserves for his work. The next day she gives 
a short unannounced test on the chapter covered and with 
especial care, ranks these papers. A few days later she 
collects the map books and ranks them. From time to time 
she studies the notebooks and tests the outside reading for 
a similar purpose. With these will be combined formal 
recitations, oral reports on reading, many short writteii 
tests and any other objective measurement she can make 
of any phase of class accomplishment. At times she will 
grade the class according to participatory activity and at 
times in terms of use of the library or the newspapers to 
interpret historic events. 

Bach of the above tests with others will be a definite 
evaluation of material or objective results and the average 
of these all will closely give the actual accomplishment of 
the pupil. They are measurements of definite lines of 
achievement but if carefully assigned will seldom vary 
greatly from each other. Teachers should find occasion for 
such tests as often as twice a week and in their rank books 
should record, in the decimal scale, the pupils' rank to- 
gether with the date and nature of the test. 

When teachers are ranking subjects for oral or written 
tests as a whole, they should not attempt a finer measure 
than the decimal scale, and similarly by the same scale the 
separate answers in the examinations should be ranked. 
All averages, however, should be in percentage notation 
for 87% obtained as a mean from fifteen of the tests just 
described has a definite meaning and is very different from 
an 87% judged to be the value of an entire composition. 

It is a comparatively easy matter to rank papers in arith- 
metic and algebra or to indicate the quality of handwriting 



36 

or spelling, since in these subjects we have accepted stand- 
ards of measurement and relative perfection. In other 
subjects the rank must still depend largely upon the judg- 
ment of the teacher and must indicate not absolute value 
in any scale but relative value. This means that all papers 
ranked 78 are of equal value and are as much better than 
papers ranked 75 as they are poorer than those ranked 81. 

Grading Papers. Teachers who have many papers to 
grade according to their relative value will economize in 
time and effort by throwing the papers into a quintile scale. 
To do this they should give the papers a cursory reading 
and should then place in pile A, the few papers that show 
marked, unmistakable merit ; in pile E the equally small 
number of papers that are clearly below grade ; in pile B, 
the considerable number of papers of high general work, 
mainly correct in form and in content but not of striking 
excellence; in pile D, the same considerable number of pa- 
pers of low gra^e and of doubtful passing value, and in 
pile C, the still larger number of mediocre papers, the 
average papers of average pupils. Teachers will then care- 
fully re-read the papers of each group and will find occa- 
sion to raise or lower by one grade such papers as have 
evidently been misplaced. At the end about 7% should be 
in class A and in class E, about 24% in each of B and D 
and the remainder, 38%, in class C. The result of these 
tests may be transferred and entered in percentage nota- 
tion based upon the passing rank of the school. "When this 
is 70%, A may well be 95, B 88, C 81, D 73 and E some 
apppropriate value under 70%. 

It is understood that the above suggestions are for a fair 
and economical method of evaluating tests and marking 
written work, they have nothing to do with the correction 
of errors. These same papers may, of course, be corrected 
for errors and returned to the writers. This, however, 
should seldom be done. It is burdensome to the teacher, 
of little value to the pupil and a great waste of red ink. 
Most written work should be prepared in the laboratory 



37 

or classroom and corrections required by tlie teachers as 
the errors are being made. Tests should always be marked 
as tests, though deficiencies should be noted for later 
teaching or drill. 

Distribution of Ranks. A particular duty of the head- 
master is to test the credibility of ranks submitted by 
teachers. If we apply the probability curve of statistical 
measurement to the scaling of individual scholastic differ- 
ences, we may expect where 70 is passing rank, 2% of all 
ranks to be under 65, 5% between 65 and 69, 18% between 
70 and 74, 25% between 70 and 79, 25% between 80 and 
84, 18% between 85 and 90, 5% between 90 and 94 and 
2% of 95 or more. Very few classes will meet these stand- 
ards, nor should they, since of necessity small classes differ 
widely in composition. But, the headmaster should know 
the reason for any marked divergence and when he finds 
teachers who mark habitually too high or too low, who 
mark erratically, with prejudice and carelessness, he should 
insist that they so iievise their standards that justice be 
done the pupils. It cannot be over-emphasized that the. 
headmaster must not enter ranks upon the school record 
until he is convinced that they fairly represent the actu«al 
accomplishments of the pupils. 

Formal Examinations vs. %ests. Many schools stilh fol- 
low the custom of periodic examinations and assi-gn to the 
results one-third of the value in reaching the pupil's rank 
for the period. Probably this is a satisfactory evaluation 
of recitation and examination work under the traditional 
system. Many schools are coming to see, however, that the 
common custom by which at the middle or the end of the 
term, work in all classes stops for a fortnight of protracted 
review, two examination days of nerve strain and a week 
of anxious waiting and disorganized activity until the pa- 
pers are corrected and the cards are out, is wasteful in 
the extreme and is of very doubtful educative value. 

It is the advice of the Educational Council, that formal 



38 

and final examinations be entirely replaced by many short 
unannounced tests given when the class has finished a 
period or chapter of the course and has procured 
results that may be tested. Reviews should be given as 
before but would have no necessary connection with exam- 
inations. Their purpose would be to organize material, not 
to cram for examination. The Educational Council rec- 
ommends that the average of the proposed tests count one- 
half in determining the standard of pupils. 

Since the common examinations of our schools have their 
origin in the college entrance examinations and in the ex- 
aminations given by university professors at the end of 
lecture courses, it is worth while to note why school tests 
should differ from formal exaniinations given by someone 
who has not taught the pupils examined and has but a 
single opportunity to determine their attainments. Such 
formal examinations should be long, should permit a choice 
between questions, should have a low passing rank and 
probably a sliding scale of passing values. Examinations 
of this nature may properly be given tuition candidates for 
high school admission, and furnish justification for the 
familiar regulation that admission may be granted to pu- 
pils who have "a general average of 70 or more and no 
subject under 50%." 

The tests a teacher gives his own class should be en- 
tirely different. They should be short, frequently given, 
at natural intervals and with definite questions. There 
should be no alternative questions, no preferred courses 
and the class should be held to a high degree of attain- 
ment. 

The Superintendefit's Duty. Superintendents should 
establish definitely a clearly understood marking system 
for their schools and have the regulations of that system 
entered in the school record book. The regulations should 
name the passing rank of the school, the values assigned 
examinations, together with their nature and frequency. 



PART II. 
The Suggested Program: The Nine Curricula. 



The Proposed Program. 

The following curricula are presented as models but are 
doubtless susceptible of improvement and each school 
mindful of the advantage of similar programs in all of the 
secondary schools of the state should still modify these 
curricula to meet its distinct and individual needs. It is not 
supposed that any school will adopt all curricula given. A 
small school should make its program of but one or two 
curricula. A large school may offer wider choice. The 
program presented has the following characteristics: 

1. "Without loss of time, it adds a full year to the pu- 
pil's course. In the academic classical curriculum, for in- 
stance, he takes the equivalent of a year of college work 
in that he takes four courses that he would not have other- 
wise. They are physics, chemistry, college Latin and col- 
lege mathematics. 

2. In addition, it enriches the course by a full year of 
work that has not been given. It gives a year in elemen- 
tary science, one in the practical arts, one in economics and 
business practices and an additional year in French. The 
following table compares the two courses and it is to be 
remembered that it is proposed to do the work in English 
and in Latin formerly done in four years in three each. 



OLD PROGRAM. 



NEW PROGRAM. 



English 

Latin 

History 

Mathematics 

French 



4 
2 
3 
3 

16 



years 
years 
years 
years 
years 



English 

Latin 

History 

Mathematics 

French 

Science 

Practical Arts 

Economics 



There is a similar gain in other curricula. 



3 years 

4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
3 years 
1 year 
1 year 

24 



40 » 

3. The program given is for six years and, as four unit 
courses are required each year, twenty-four units are 
needed to complete each program. 

4. In all but the Academic Classical Curriculum, four 
full courses in household arts are required of all girls. 

5. No curriculum is made up of scattered courses but 
each has continuity provided for in the carrying of some 
subjects beyond the elementary stage. 

6. The curricula are not restricted to a narrow field 
of work, as all require work during the last four years in 
English, in history, in mathematics, in science, in eco- 
nomics and all, except the two Smith-Hughes curricula, 
require work in these years in a foreign language. 

7. Science is recognized as it was not in the older pro- 
gram. 

8. In the first four years, subjects are grouped that 
are inspirational and appeal to the imagination and expe- 
rience of the child. In the last two years are the subjects 
that require drill and organization. 

9. Any subject of secondary grade may be included in 
a school program, if the school is equipped for its efficient 
presentation. Many desirable courses, as those in Greek, 
German, biology and geology, are not given in this pro- 
gram but may be introduced in different schools. 

10. To a secondary school organized on the six-six plan, 
pupils may be admitted who have completed the elementary 
work of an eight-four system and may complete the 
work in five years. They will be admitted to Class II and 
would take for the first year Science I, Science II, French 
I, Mathematics I and Mathematics II. In Classes III and 
IV, they would do regular work, with extra work in 
French. To a school organized oil the eight-four plan, 
pupils may be admitted who have completed the elemen- 
tary work of a six-six system and i;nay complete the work 
in five years. They would be admitted to Grade VIII and 
would take double history, arithmetic, geography, gram- 
mar, etc.^ 



41 



11. It will be noted that no courses are suggested in 
biology, physiography, astronomy and geology, in ancient, 
European and English history, in Greek or in German. 
These subjects are not omitted because they are not proper 
constituents of a secondary program. Admirable outlines 
for each were given in the 1912 program and schools which 
wish to continue these subjects will be able to refer to the 
standards set for the different courses. 

12. The curricula offered are nine : 



Academic Classical 
Academic Domestic Arts 

Liberal Domestic Arts 
Commerce: Girls 
Commerce : Boys 
Business: Girls 
Business: Boys 
Smith-Hughes Agricultural 
Smith-Hughes Mechanic Arts 



boys 



boys 

boys 

boys 
boys 



girls 
girls 
girls 
girls 

girls 



ALL CURRICULA. 



Year 



History and Civics 

French 

Mathematics 

Elementary Science 

Manual Training (boys), Cooking 
and Sewing (girls) 

(B and C Subjects. Drawing, 
Composition, Plays, Gardens, Mu- 
sic, Current Events, Literature, 
Hygiene) 



days 
days 
days 
days 



periods 
periods 
periods 
periods 



2 days 4 periods 



5 days 10 half -periods 



History and Civics 


5 days 


5 periods 


French 


5 days 


5 periods 


II Mathematics 


5 days 


5 periods 


Elementary Science 


3 days 


3 periods 


Manual Training (boys) , 


Cooking 




and Sewing (giffls) 


2 days 


4 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 


5 days 


10 half -periods 



42 



ACADEMIC CLASSICAL CURRICULUM. 



Year 

English 
French 
III Latin 

History of Civilization 
(B and C Subjects) 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


days 
days 
days 
days 
days 


5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 
10 half -periods 


N 
English 

French 

IV Latin 

Physics 

(B and C Subjects) 


5 
5 

5 
5 
5 


days 
days 
days 
days 
days 


5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 
7 periods 
10 half -periods 


English 
Latin 
V Algebra and Geometry 
Chemistry 


5 
5 
5 
5 


days 
days 
days 
days 


5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 
7 periods 


United States Constitutional His- 
tory 
Latin 
VI Senior Mathematics 

Economics and Business Practices 


5 
5 
5 
5 


days 
days 
days 
days 


5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 



ACADEMIC DOMESTIC ARTS CURRICULUM. 



Year 






English ■ 


5 days 


5 periods 


French 


5 days 


5 periods 


III Latin 


5 days 


5 periods 


Household Appliances 


5 days 


7 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 


5 days 


10 half-periods 


English 


5 days 


5 periods 


French 


5 days 


5 periods 


IV Latin 


5 days 


5 periods 


Nursing and Physiology 


5 days 


5 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 


5 days 


10 half-periods 



43 



Year 






English 


5 days 


5 periods 


Latin 


5 days 


5 periods 


V Algebra and Geometry 


5 days 


5 periods 


Household Organization 


5 days 


5 periods 


United States Constitutional His- 






tory 


5 days 


5 periods 


Latin 


5 days 


5 periods 


VI Economics and Business Practices 


5 days 


5 periods 


Household Management 


5 days 


5 periods 



LIBERAL DOMESTIC ARTS CURRICULUM. 



Year 

English 
French 
III History of Civilization 
Household Appliances 
(B and C Subjects) 



5 days 5 periods 
5 days 5 periods 
5 days 5 periods 
5 days 7 periods 
5 days 10 half-periods 



English 
French 
IV Masterpieces of Music and Art 
Nursing and Physiology 
(B and C Subjects) 



5 days 5 periods 
5 days 5 periods 
5 days 5 periods 
5 days 5 periods 
5 days 10 half-periods 



English 

The Common Sciences 
V Algebra and Geometry 
Household Organization 



5 days 5 periods 

5 days 5 periods 

5 days 5 periods 

5 days 5 periods 



United States Constitutional His- 
tory 5 days 5 periods 
Greek and Roman Literature 5 days 5 periods 
VI Economics and Business Practices 5 days 5 periods 
Household Management 5 days 5 periods 



44 



COMMERCE CURRICULUM: GIRLS. 



Year 




English 5 days 


5 periods 


French 5 days 


5 periods 


III Bookkeeping, Arithnaetic and Type- 




writing 5 days 


8 periods 


Household Appliances 5 days 


7 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 5 days 


10 half-periods 



English 5 days 5 periods 
Commercial Geography and History 5 days 5 periods 
IV Bookkeeping, Arithmetic, Stenogra- 
phy and Typewriting 5 days 10 periods 
Nursing and Physiology 5 days 5 periods 



(B and C Subjects) 



5 days 10 half-periods 



English 

Stenography and Typewriting, Spell- 
ing and Correspondenee 
The Common Sciences 
Household Organization 



5 days 5 periods 



5 d^s 
5 days 
5 days 



7 periods 
5 periods 
5 periods 



VI 



United States Constitutional His- 
tory 

Office Practice, Stenography and 
Typewriting 

Economics and Business Practices 

Household Management 



5 days 5 periods 



days 
days 
days 



periods 
periods 
periods 



COMMERCE CURRICULUM: BOYS. 



Year 






English 


5 days 


5 periods 


French 


5 days 


5 periods 


III Bookkeeping, Arithmetic and Type- 






writing 


5 days 


8 periods 


History of Civilization 


5 days 


5 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 


5 days 


10 half -periods 



45 



Year 






English 


5 days 


5 periods 


Commercial Geography and History 


5 days 


5 periods 


IV Bookkeeping, Arithmetic, Stenogra- 






phy and Typewriting 


5 days 


10 periods 


Physics 


5 days 


7 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 


5 days 


10 half-periods 


English 


5 days 


5 periods 


Spanish 


5 days 


5 periods 


V Stenography and Typewriting, Spell- 






ing and Correspondence 


5 days 


7 periods 


Chemistry 


5 days 


7 periods 



United States Constitutional His- 
tory 5 days 5 periods 
Spanish 5 days 5 periods 
VI Office Practice, Stenography and 

Typewriting 5 days 7 periods 

Economics and Business Practices 5 days 5 periods 



BUSINESS CURRICULUM: GIRLS. 



Year 








English 




5 days 


5 periods 


French 




5 days 


5 periods 


III Bookkeeping, Arithmetic and Type- 






writing 




5 days 


8 periods 


Household Appliances 




5 days 


7 periods 


(B and C Subjects) 




5 days 


10 half -periods 


English 




5 days 


5 periods 


Commercial Geography 


and History 


5 days 


5 periods 



IV Bookkeeping, Arithmetic, Typewrit- 
ing, Spelling, Correspondence 5 days 10 periods 
Nursing and Physiology 5 days 5 periods 



(B and C Subjects) 



5 days 10 half -periods 



46 



Year 






English 


5 days 


5 periods 


Spanish 


5 days 


5 periods 


V Household Organization 


5 days 


5 periods 


The Common Sciences 


5 days 


5 periods 



United States Constitutional His- 
tory 5 days 5 periods 
Spanish 5 days 5 periods 
VI Household Management 5 days 5 periods 
Economics and Business Practices 5 days 5 periods 



BUSINESS CURRICULUM: BOYS. 



Year 










English 




5 days 


5 periods 




French 




5 days 


5 periods 


III 


Bookkeeping, Arithmetic and 


Type- 








writing 




5 days 


8 periods 




History of Civilization 




5 days 


5 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 




5 days 


10 half-periods 




English 




5 days 


5 periods 




Commercial Geography and History 


' 5 days 


5 periods 


IV 


Bookkeeping, Arithmetic, 


Type- 








writing, Spelling, Correspoi 


idence 5 days 


8 periods 




Physics 




5 days 


7 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 




5 days 


10 half-periods 




English 




5 days 


5 periods 




Spanish 




5 days 


5 periods 


V 


Algebra and Geometry 




5 days 


5 periods 




Chemistry 




5 days 


7 periods 




United States Constitutional 


His- 








tory 




5 days 


5 periods 




Spanish 




5 days 


5 periods 


VI 


Senior Mathematics 




5 days 


5 periods 




Economics and Business Practices 


5 days 


5 periods 



47 



SMITH-HUGHES AGRICULTURAL CURRICULUM. 



Year 












English 






5 days 


5 periods 




History of Civilization 






5 days 


5 periods 


III 


Soils and Horticulture 






5 days 


10 periods 




Wood Work 






5 days 


5 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 






5 days 


10 half-periods 




English 






5 days 


5 periods 




Physics 






5 days 


7 periods 


IV 


Field Crops 






5 days 


10 periods 




Iron Work 






5 days 


5 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 






5 days 


10 half -periods 




English 






5 days 


5 periods 




Algebra and Geometry 






5 days 


5 periods 


V 


Animal Husbandry 






5 days 


7 periods 




Farm Engineering and Tools 




5 days 


5 periods 




United States Constitutional 


His- 








tory 






5 days 


5 periods 




Farm Organization and 


Manage- 








ment 






5 days 


5 periods 


VI 


Roads and Forestry 






5 days 


5 periods 




Economics and Business Practices 


5 days 


5 periods 



SMITH-HUGHES MECHANIC ARTS CURRICULUM. 



Year 










English 




5 days 


5 periods 




History of Civilization 




5 days 


5 periods 


III 


Shop Work and Mechanical 


Draw- 








ing 




5 days 


20 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 




5 days 


10 half -periods 




English 




5 days 


5 periods 




Physics 




5 days 


7 periods 


IV 


Pattern Making, Forging and Mould 








mg 




5 days 


20 periods 




(B and C Subjects) 




5 days 


10 half-periods 



48 



Year 






English 


5 days 


5 periods 


Algebra and Geometry 


5 days 


5 periods 


V Machine Shop and Electrical Wiring 


5 days 


15 periods 


Chemistry 


5 days 


7 periods 


United States Constitutional His- 






tory 


5 days 


5 periods 


VI Machine Shop Mechanisms and 






Engineering 


5 days 


20 periods 


Economics and Business Practices 


5 days 


5 periods 



Notes on Curricula. 
all curricula. 

Years I and II (Grades VII and VIII). 

In General. The events of the last few years have made 
the knowledge of French an essential element in educa- 
tion and several years of successful experience in a 
number of our schools has established the fact that the 
proposed courses in elementary science and in concrete 
mathematics have a vital hold upon pupils of this age. 
Accordingly, the same courses are proposed for all pu- 
pils during these two years, the different curricula are 
not distinguished and a binding choice need not be made 
by the pupils until the third year. A careful study will 
also show that ambitious pupils who have started in the 
wrong curriculum may, in many eases, change without 
great hardship at the beginning of the fourth or even the 
fifth year. 

Possible Changes. Many changes are possible in this list 
as schools may prefer to give Latin in place of French. 
The French may also be replaced by two well-organized 
courses in elementary agriculture and these made to lead 
to the subsidized Smith-Hughes curricula in agriculture 



• 49 

and in mechanic arts, as given for Years III to VI, 
though the recommended curriculum leads to these as 
well. 

/. Academic Classical Curriculum. 

In General. This curriculum is designed for boys who 
are preparing for a college course that will lead to work 
in the professions. It is appropriate also for girls who 
desire to enter those colleges which still restrict their 
entrance requirements. 

Possible Changes. The course in History of Civilization 
may be replaced by the traditional course in ancient his- 
tory. For pupils who are preparing for colleges which 
will not accept the new course, a brief non-unit course in 
one of the later years may be given. Schools which de- 
sire to give a third foreign language, German or Spanish, 
may introduce courses in place of the chemistry and 
economics. 

In three effective years we can easily do all the work 
in English that is now assigned for four years. Schools 
which do not accept this view may, of course, replace the 
economics proposed for the senior year by a fourth 
course in English. 

II. Academic Domestic Arts Curriculum. 

In General. This curriculum is for girls who wish four 
years of Latin. It is identical with the Academic Classi- 
cal Curriculum, except that it replaces the history of 
civilization, the physics, the chemistry and the advanced 
mathematics by the four regular courses in domestic arts. 
It is a curriculum of high educational value. 

Possible Changes. It is doubtful that any changes should 
be made in this curriculum. We believe that any sepa- 
rate courses in the domestic arts should not be approved 
but that 'the four courses of these years are continuous 



50 

and possess a unity that should not be broken. As has 
already been said, additional mathematics or additional 
English could replace the course in economics. 

///. Liberal Domestic Arts Curriculum. 

In General. This is like the Academic Domestic Arts 
Curriculum, except that it replaces the four courses in 
Latin with history of civilization and three new courses. 
It is a liberal course of high educational merit and should 
be offered in most schools and chosen by a majority of 
high school girls. It furnishes the best preparation of- 
fered for the normal schools, makes full preparation for 
New Hampshire College and furnishes the broad educa- 
tion needed for the teacher, the nurse and the home 
maker. 

Possible Changes. A second foreign language may be 
introduced in place of the new courses or of economics. 

IV. Commerce Curriculum: Girls. 

In General. This curriculum is designed to prepare girls 
for ofSce work and for clerical positions. There is a 
great demand at present for young women for work of 
this nature, but there is a possibility that the supply may 
be greater than the demand by the time that the girls of 
our younger classes have completed their preparation. 
Accordingly, it is desirable that this curriculum should 
not have a narrow restriction to branches of commerce 
but should also furnish a liberal education and full prep- 
aration for the career of home maker. In the four-year 
high school, it was very difficult to give to the same pu- 
pils both the work in commerce and that in domestic arts. 
In this program, it will be seen to be entirely possible. 

This curriculum is like the Academic Domestic Arts, 
except that the Latin and mathematics and the fourth 
year in French are replaced by one course in science and 
five in commerce. These five courses are (III) Book- 



51 

keeping with arithmetic and typewriting; (IV) Book- 
keeping with arithmetic, stenography and typewriting 
and commercial geography with history; (V) Stenogra- 
phy with typewriting, spelling, correspondence and pen- 
manship; (VI) Office practice with stenography and 
typewriting. 

Possible Changes. It will be noted that with the course 
in economics and business practices, six courses of com- 
merce are given in this curriculum. By agreement, this 
is ample for commercial work but the courses. in com- 
merce may be rearranged by schools that believe some 
other plan better than the one suggested. Not over two 
years may be devoted to drill and formal work in book- 
keeping or in stenography, and office practice, if offered, 
must be purposeful work of a practical kind. 

V. Commerce Curriculum: Boys. 

hi General. This is like the girls' curriculum, except 
that the four courses in domestic arts and the one in the 
common sciences are replaced by the history of civiliza- 
tion, by physics, and by chemistry and by two years of 
Spanish. The curriculum is designed for boys who look 
forward to office and clerical work. 

Possible Changes. The two years of Spanish may be re- 
placed by two years of mathematics in schools which are 
not prepared to teach Spanish. It is believed, however, 
that particularly for boys, Spanish is a desirable part of 
a course in commerce and, with the development of in- 
timate relations with South American countries, is likely 
to be of great value. 

VI. Business Curriculum,: Girls. 

In General. This is like the commerce curriculum for 
girls, except that stenography and office practice are not 
given. The Years III and IV are the same, except that 



52 



in Year IV the stenography is replaced by additional 
drill in typewriting and business English and in the last 
two years is replaced by Spanish. This curriculum is 
suggested to meet the needs of girls who wish to do work* 
as cashiers or bookkeepers or who engage in other cleri- 
cal work which does not call for the use of stenography. 
The curriculum is not recommended for general adop- 
tion. 

Possible Changes. Spanish may be replaced by German 
or by mathematics. 

VII. Business Curriculum: Boys. 

In General. This is like the business curriculum for 
girls, except that the four years of domestic arts and the 
year in the common sciences are replaced by history of 
civilization, physics, chemistry and two years of mathe- 
matics. Many boys wish courses in bookkeeping but do 
not desire work in stenography and, commonly, clerical 
positions which call for stenography are held by young 
women. This curriculum is recommended for schools 
where curricula in agriciilture and in mechanic arts can- 
not be established and should be chosen by boys who do 
not wish a Latin course. 

Possible Changes. French may be continued for another 
year and may replace the course proposed in history of 
civilization. 

VIII. Smith-Hughes Agricultural Curriculum. 

In General. This is the curriculum subsidized by the 
Smith-Hughes Act. The vocational courses are the four 
in agriculture, the two in farm mechanics, the course in 
roads and forestry and the one in farm tools and engi- 
neering. The non-vocational courses are three in Eng- 
lish, two in history, physics, algebra and geometry and 
economics and business practices. This curriculum 



53 

should be in every city and country secondary school in 
the state where there are farm boys and its selection 
should be urged upon a large number of boys. 

Possible Changes. Some changes may be made in the 
non-vocational courses but none in the vocational. 

IX. Smith-Hughes Mechanic Arts Curriculum. 

In General. This is a Smith-Hughes curriculum. The 
vocational courses are in shop work, in pattern making, 
turning, forging and moulding, in machine shop prac- 
tice, electric wiring, mechanics and engineering. The 
non-vDcational courses are three in English, two in his- 
tory, physics, chemistry, algebra and geometry and 
economics and business practices. This curriculum 
should be in every New Hampshire secondary school 
that is in an industrial center. It is a most important 
curriculum. 

Possible Changes. Some changes may be made in the 
non-vocational courses but none in the vocational. 



PART III. 
Courses Outlined. 



CHAPTER I. 



English. 
Aims. 

English courses are offered in our secondary programs 
(1) to open to pupils the world's storehouse of informa- 
tion, that is, to make them well-read persons. (2) To aid 
them to appreciate and relive the inspiring thoughts of 
others. (3) To develop in them the power to express 
themselves correctly and with force. 

Three courses are recommended : English III, English 
IV and English V. 

Standards. 

1. The appreciative study in the class of twelve books 
each year, these to be books of proven value in which 
the pupil may take a real interest. 

2. The reading throughout the year of one of the 
general history magazines and one magazine connected 
with the courses which the pupil follows, as one which 
deals with domestic economy, with science, with mechan- 
ics, with agriculture, with geography or with literature. 

3. The individual reading of six books, preferably 
modern, on geography, history, invention, commerce or 
the like. These are the worth-while books of the day 
which are more interesting than novels. 

4. The constant incidental and functional study of 
composition, grammar and rhetoric in all three years. 

5. The systematic study of the history of English and 



S5 

American literature, of composition, grammar and 
rhetoric in the third year. 

6. In the first two years, constant drill and class prac- 
tice in composition. 

7. In each year from fifty to one hundred pages of 
carefully prepared written expression, the greater part 
of this to be regular work in other courses. 

8. The organization of the school for correct habits 
of English expression. 

Suggestions. 

English in the First and Second Years. Formal 
courses in English in these two years are not advised. As 
already described in the organized A, B and C periods of 
these years, there should be much reading, composition 
and the study and appreciation of literature. From the 
first day, illiteracy should not be endured but corrective 
drill and constructive practice should be applied to all 
pupils who do not write legibly, spell correctly and ex- 
press themselves in clear terms until a cure is effected. 

English III and IV. 

The General Plan. It is recommended that during the 
first two years the equivalent of three days a week be 
devoted to reading and literature and two days to compo- 
sition, expression and drill. Each may be stressed in 
turn, for the reading of an interesting story should not 
be interrupted by the insertion of a composition day. 
Most English periods, whether literature or composition, 
should begin with attention to the events of the day. 
Ordinarily, the teacher should make a brief statement of 
the day's news, should answer questions and secure defi- 
nite reports. For this five minutes is ordinarily suffi- 
cient. That our pupils may be well informed, they must 
be well-read and the purpose of these exercises is not to 
give information, but that the teacher may arouse in- 
terest and by suggestion may lead pupils to intelligent 
reading. 



56 

Doubtless, a school is nnder the same obligation to 
provide pupils with current periodicals as it is with 
copies of Ivanhoe. Many schools, however, find the five 
cent a week club plan preferable as each pupil then owns 
his personal copy. Among the weeklies, The Literary 
Digest, The Independent and The Outlook are recom- 
mended and, if provided by the school, ten copies of each 
will be sufficient for the entire school if English classes 
number not over thirty pupils. Pupils must also have 
access to daily papers and technical magazines. The 
little paper, "Current Events," is in no sense adequate 
for high school work. 

Literature Periods. Much of the reading of periodicals 
should be in the classroom. After the teacher has given 
her morning summary and suggestions, each pupil should 
turn to his reading and the teacher should go from desk 
to desk for personal suggestions and for discussion of 
topics which have aroused interest. 

Most of the ordinary outside reading of selected books 
should similarly be in the classroom and the pupils as 
they retell the story and explain its incidents will ade- 
quately replace the formal book reviews now in vogue. 

In addition it is likely that the class should read to- 
gether at least a dozen books during the year. Each 
classic should be taught by the teacher, by the sugges- 
tions of Chapter XXII. See also the suggestions in 
Parker's "Methods of Teaching in High Schools" and 
the appropriate chapters in Judd's "Psychology of High 
School Subjects." 

There should be no word pronouncing of "paragraphs as 
at present, but much reading for rhetorical effect of selected 
practiced paragraphs. The purpose throughout is that 
the pupil can understand and appreciate the story and 
to this everything else should be subordinate. There 
should be little conscious study of the style of the writer 
or the meaning of isolated phrases or incidents. Vocab- 
ularies should be enlarged by forcing the meaning of 



\ 



57 

new words from their context and not by the common 
"Look it up in the dictionary." The comments of the 
teacher shonld keep the subject constantly before the 
class and her questions should be thought and not mem- 
ory questions, not "In ivhat English county did you learn 
yesterday that York was situated?" or "How many men 
does Stevenson say David heard while he was in the 
apple barrel?" but rather, "Now that he has heard the 
plot, what will he do?" "What would you do if you 
were in his place?" The teacher should outline the 
story, the class should read it silently with the coopera- 
tion of the teacher, then should follow class discussion 
and the study, re-reading and enjoyment of selected pas- 
sages. Most classes spend upon each book double the 
time that is profitable. 

English teachers should, of course, have access to the 
"English Journal" and the bulletins referred to above. 
It is very important that they understand the psychology 
of the reading process. References are, Huey's "The 
Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading" and G. Stanley 
Hall's "Pedagogy of Reading" in "Educational Prob- 
lems." 

Few teachers can teach well to their classes, Ivanhoe, 
The Last of the Mohicans and the Tale of Two Cities. 
Those that can should continue with them. Recom- 
mended books for these years are Treasure Island, Kid- 
napped, David Copperfield, Nicholas Nickleby, The Man 
"Without a Country, Two Years Before the Mast, Cap- 
tains Courageous, Silas Marner. See also the excellent 
lists in Bulletin 1917, No. 2, Reorganization of English 
in Secondary Schools by the National Bureau of Educa- 
tion. 

During each year there should be more careful study 
with re-reading of a number of longer poems as illus- 
trated by Shakespeare's plays, Scott's poems, The An- 
cient Mariner, The Holy Grail and the best poems of the 
year as they appear in current magazines. It is particu- 



58 

larly desirable that pupils memorize and use short poems, 
paragraphs, verses and lines. On procedure in teaching 
the memorizing of poems, see Halburton & Smith's 
''Teaching Poetry in the Grades" and Bolenus' '-'Teach- 
ing Literature in Grammar Grades and High School." 

Composition Periods. All practice writing should be in 
the classroom and be directed and corrected as written. 
Teachers who delight to spend their evenings in correcting 
compositions may continue to do so but should regard it 
as a diversion as it is not connected with the inculcation 
of corrected habits of expression. During the class period 
the teacher will pass from desk to desk with constructive 
criticism. In an ordinary class of twenty there will be four- 
teen pupils who will need from the teacher little more than 
occasional encouragement and direction. There will be 
six whose practice should be under constant guidance. 
Errors should be corrected at once and the proper forms 
written and rewritten until the habit of correct expres- 
sion is established. For this practice work the exercises 
should not be long, nor should they be formal composi- 
tions. A formal composition is one written for the sake 
of a composition, not in order to express thought. To 
send a girl who loves music to the encyclopedia to look 
up wireless telegraphy so that she can write a composi- 
tion on it, is to impose on her a formal composition. She 
is not concerned with the subject but only in the connec- 
tion of two hundred words. On the other hand, the boy 
who has his own plant is interested to tell the class what 
he knows and what they do not. This is a basis for suc- 
cessful composition, to furnish expert information to the 
uninformed. In his practice compositions each pupil 
should tell simply that which he already knows, that 
which he has seen or what he has done. The newer 
manuals of composition are full of desirable suggestions. 

Drill. That the teachers in all subjects must refuse all 
work in incorrect form and that the school must not 



59 

admit illiterate pupils or promote them has already been 
made plain in our circulars. Such pupils must be 
given special drill but must understand that teachers 
will not tolerate careless or superficial work. No paper 
should be accepted or corrected which does not reach 60 
on the Ayres' Penmanship Scale or which misspells any 
of the Ayres' "1000 Commonest "Words." See Institute 
Circular No. 2. 

In Institute Circular No. 1, it was suggested that 
schools should organize for correct English expression. 
There have been many experiments but the most hope- 
ful attempts have followed this method. The teachers 
of other subjects are primarily Latin or physics teachers 
but they insist on good English and they furnish the 
En'glish teacher with material for drill. In their class- 
room and in the school halls they note with the name 
of each pupil his ungrammatical, unrhetorical or uncouth 
statements. From his written work, they gather his 
errors in composition and occasional spelling. They em- 
phasize good English before their classes and in personal 
conferences aid their pupils. At the end of the week, 
they give the English teacher their notes of pupils who 
need specified drill and she files these notes as part of 
her individual account with each pupil. 

The teacher now has material for her drill periods but 
this will seldom be drill for the whole class. The two- 
thirds of the class whose habits are correct will be seated 
in the back of the room at whatever work they need to 
do. Usually the teacher will have drill work with not 
over four or five pupils at a time or may work with in- 
dividual pupils. The errors to be corrected will be in 
spelling, in sentence formation, in paragraphing, in slov- 
enly expression, in pronunciation and in uncouth man- 
nerisms of speech. To the individual pupil the teacher 
will point out his error, will show how the error may be 
detected, will give much drill on the repetition of the 
correct form and will see that the pupil gives it the prac- 



60 

tice that is needed until it becomes habitual. At later 
drill periods the pupil reports progress and learns of the 
statements of his teachers. 

Many of the composition and rhetoric textbooks con- 
tain suitable exercises for drill of this kind but these 
exercises are valueless without attentive repetition. The 
same sentences should be given again and again by the 
pupil who needs the practice till his response is habitual. 

Frequently the teacher should secure the written work 
in other subjects, notebooks, reports and the like. She 
should not correct these, but the English expression 
should be a large factor in her determination of the com- 
position rank to be given the pupil. A most excellent 
test of the pupil's ability of punctuating correctly is to 
study his written demonstration in geometry. See Cir- 
cular No. 2, pages 6 and 7. 

The Incidental Teaching of Grammar, Composition and 
Rhetoric. In these two years there should be no recitation 
or general class work in any of the formal treatises in 
composition and rhetoric but there should be in the class- 
room for reference, a number of these books and partic- 
ularly "Wooley's Handbook. Each teacher should have 
a copy of the 1916 Elementary Program of Studies and 
become familiar Avith the synopsis of grammar, given on 
pages 49 to 52. The teacher should remember that pupils 
come from the elementary schools in possession of this 
minimum and no additional grammar is needed for these 
two years. The teacher should hold this knowledge by 
use, and especially by use in the composition periods 
where the names and use of the parts of speech, the 
division of sentences and the forms of expression will 
constantly be associated with production. 

In the composition periods, the rhetorical terms, clear- 
ness, force, coherence, topic paragraph will be in general 
use to denote characteristics that make composition clear 
and well understood. So, too, in the literature, the 



61 

names of the figures of speech and the technical terms in 
versification will be but the names for the forms of force- 
ful expressions and of the rhythm of pleasing verse. 
They, however, are concrete illustration. The definitions 
are not known or the classification. The pupil knows 
that the third line of Evangeline has a simile that pleases 
him and which he repeats with pleasure, but he does not 
forthwith learn the seven forms of metonymy. In the 
same study, he delights to associate the name and the 
swing of the dactylic hexameter but he does not wish to 
classify all known forms of prosody. 

English V. 

The General Plan. The division of time of this year may 
well be one period a week for the history of literature, 
two for grammar and rhetoric and two for literature. 
During the year the work in current history and litera- 
ture will continue as before and there will be much read- 
ing in technical magazines and books connected with the 
pupil's interest and studies. All teachers will insist on 
correct work and it is hoped that but little personal drill 
is needed. 

Manuals of American and English Literature should 
be studied but all parts omitted that have to do with 
authors or works which the class have not read or are 
not now reading. "We should attempt to organize only 
the material that we have collected. The literature for 
the year should be closely connected with the history of 
literature and should consist of reading and study of the 
most important books of the writers whose lives are 
studied. Palgraves' Golden Treasury should be used 
and other compendiums which contain copious selections 
of illustrative literature. 

During this year grammar should be reviewed and or- 
ganized and all the elements of composition and rhetoric 
used in the practice of the earlier years should be classi- 



62 

fled and systematized. Pupils should be provided with 
some one of the textbooks on grammar, and on composi- 
tion and rhetoric and should carefully study and follow 
these outlines. 

English in the Sixth Year. In our present English 
courses we have sufficient material for not more than 
three years. This has long been the opinion of college 
entrance boards which allow but three units for the four 
years' work in English. Until we can do the work well 
it is not desirable to further extend the course. In any 
case, the work in current history for the senior year is 
an integral part of the required course in United States 
Constitutional History rather than of the English course, 
and so there is no break in the purposeful reading habits 
by pupils. 

Schools which do not share in this belief may well di- 
vide the work outlined above for the third year between 
the third and fourth. 

For the benefit of the pupils preparing for colleges 
whose entrance requirements are not met by the above 
suggestions, many of our schools would need for the 
present to give a fourth year in English, but this should 
be an optional or elective course to be taken only by 
those who need it to meet college demands. There should 
be much writing of long, formal compositions, a complete 
mastery of the definitions and nomenclature employed 
in rhetoric and in English literature. There should also 
be a word by word study of the classics on the college 
required list. There will, of course, be no time to at- 
tempt to make this course of educational value. It would 
be a definite preparation for college entrance. 

Bibliography. 

Parker, ** Methods of Teaching in High Schools." 
Judd, "Psychology of High School Subjects." 
''English Journal." 



63 

Huey, ''The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading." 

Hall, "Pedagogy of Reading." 

National Bureau of Education, "Reorganization of 
English in Secondary Schools." 

Massachusetts Board of Education, "English for 
Grades VII, VIII and IX." 

Halburton & Smith, * ' Teaching Poetry in the Grades. ' ' 

Bolenius, "Teaching Literature in Grammar Grades 
and High School. ' ' 

Wooley, "Handbook of Composition." 

Ayres, "Penmanship Scale." 

Aj'-res, "1000 Commonest Words." 



.CHAPTER II. 

Foreign Languages. 

Courses in Greek and German are not listed here as Greek 
has almost entirely disappeared from New Hampshire sec- 
ondary schools and German has been dropped from most 
programs. Those who desire will find courses in Greek 
and German outlined in former programs. 

LATIN. 

Aims. 

Since competent psychological experimentation has dem- 
onstrated the fallacy of the doctrine of formal mental dis- 
cipline with unlimited transfer of training, and since the 
principle seems to be well established that no such general 
mental discipline exists, the presence of Latin in a school 
program must be justified on other grounds than as a 
means of mental discipline. 

Most schools have modified their [language teaching to 
conform to this principle and in Latin, as in all other 



64 

languages, teachers stress the development of ability to get 
the thought from the printed page. In each year of the 
course they are emphasizing sight translation and reading 
in Latin and are reducing the amount of time given to 
grammatical and syntactical drill. 

In brief, the aims kept in mind in the following courses 
are that pupils may understand the life and the ideals of a 
notable people, foreign to them in time and race, and that 
they may profit by an intimate knowledge of the written 
memorials of these people. Throughout, the study is one 
of life and of literature. 

Standards. 

In this program, four Latin courses are planned and are 
assigned to Years III to VI of the reorganized six-year high 
school program. The courses will be taken by pupils who 
have preceded the study by two years of work in French 
and in these courses have taken sufficient interest so that 
they wish to choose a curriculum that directs them to 
further linguistic and literary study. The pupils who in 
these French courses have found their ability to lie m 
other lines will not elect a Latin curriculum. 

Because of this selective restriction, and because of the 
two years of familia,rity with a foreign language, progress 
in the Latin classes should be rapid from the first. 

It has long been the custom in most schools to devote one 
day in five to Latin prose composition and much of this 
work has had no intimate connection with the subject 
matter of the translation days. Educationally, this plan 
was indefensible and in practice resulted in much time 
uneconomically spent. In progressive schools during the 
last few years, this amount of time has been very much 
reduced, since the excessive work in composition was de- 
signed to give proficiency in grammar and grammar is no 
longer held as a primary Latin end. 

In the same classes, the larger part of the translation 



65 

time was often spent in tagging and classifying separate 
words under the name of syntax. This custom, too, is 
losing ground. 

In our best classes, there is increasingly much silent 
reading, much thoughtful translation and much collateral 
study of the life that is mirrored in the literature read, 
with the result that the old quantitative standards set for 
these courses are found to be inadequate to measure rea- 
sonable work for these years. 

It is evident that the standards should be materially 
raised and it is held that well organized schools, working 
under the plan of this program, can complete in three 
years all of the work set in translation for four years by 
the older plan. There will then be opportunity for a full 
year of additional reading. 

1. No requirement is now set in prose composition, 
since classroom drill will in general be sufficient for the 
educational needs of the pupils. Schools which must meet 
special requirements with pupils for college entrance will, 
however, need to add formal work. 

2. Standards of completion in grammar consist of all 
regular inflections, all common irregular verbs and syntax 
of prose authors read. 

3. Fifty per cent., at least, of all reading should be 
sight reading. Selections should be read and re-read until 
pupils are familiar with the thought and can return fluent 
and satisfactory translations. 

4. Latin III. A beginner's book, with at least thirty 
pages of connected reading. 

Latin IV. An amount quantitatively equivalent to four 
books of Caesar and two orations of Cicero. 

Latin V. An amount quantitatively equivalent to four 
orations of Cicero and six books of Vergil. 



66 

Latin VI. An amount quantitatively equivalent to at 
least the work of Latin V. The texts recommended are 
Cicero, Ovid, Livy, Horace, Tacitus, Pliny. 

It is recognized that in schools where Latin is not pre- 
ceded by French, the above quantitative standards are 
probably excessive and these may be substituted : 

Latin IV. An amount quantitatively equivalent to five 
books of Caesar. 

Latin V. An amount quantitatively equivalent to eight 
orations of Cicero. 

Latin VI. An amount quantitatively equivalent to six 
books of Vergil, with 2,000 lines of Ovid. 

In some schools, Latin may be given in place of French 
in Grades VII and VIII. No outline has been prepared 
for such courses but teachers may find helpful suggestions 
in the section on French for these years. The attempt in 
. American schools to teach Latin as a spoken language, 
however, in imitation of conversational work in French is 
probably pedantic affectation. 

Suggestions. 

It is found that extensive reading, with due insistence 
upon accuracy and idiomatic English, develops greater 
ability in thought-getting and in translation than is gen- 
erally acquired through excessive attention to syntax. 

Mastery of forms through intensive drill is imperative 
in first-year work. Much of this drill is best given by ex- 
tensive reading of simple, well-graded story exercises. 
Work of this kind is particularly successful when stories 
are written by teachers to supplement the material found 
in beginners' books. The need of a particular class is best 
satisfied in this way because at the close of a period the 
teachers know what forms especially need numerous repe- 
titions in the translation of the following day. By select- 



67 

ing stories and sentences from many first-year books, much 
material may be provided for sight translation from the 
blackboard or from printed sheets. Some schools are using 
material in the first year which is equivalent to all that 
can be found in five first-year Latin books. 

If stories are so carefully graded that pupils are led by 
easy steps from one form of expression or principle of syn- 
tax to another only slightly more difficult, and if abundant 
practice in reading is provided, the task of greatest im- 
portance will be accomplished. Doubtless many first-year 
classes could read five or six times the amount they usually 
read. 

In connection with sight translation, it is valuable to 
have the class read rapidly a story or selection to get the 
thought and have pupils give an outline of the essential 
points before giving a careful, detailed translation. 

Eapid perception card drill for short intervals in class 
on forms and vocabulary is one of the best devices known 
for effective repetition and mastery of essentials and is 
advised for each year of the course. Pupils also should 
practice daily in study periods with small individual per- 
ception cards, using them as rapidly as possible. 

A working vocabulary should be thoroughly known so 
that it will be necessary for the pupil to consult a lexicon 
very rarely when he is reading. 

Energy should be spent on reading, on working out the 
meaning of words from known sources, on derivation of 
words — not on looking up in the lexicon the meaning of 
words that the pupil is capable of thinking out. Less 
finger exercise on the vocabulary and more active exercis- 
ing of brain cells is needed in nearly every Latin class. 

Attention to mythology, to historical and literary allu- 
sions enhances the pupil's interest and adds appreciably to 
his enjoyment both in school and in later life. 

Prose drill at sight in class generally will be sufficient to 
meet the needs of pupils not preparing for college. The 
latter may be given additional prose work. 



68 

BiMiography . 

Suggested material for reading: 

Latin III. 

Chickering 's Latin Eeader : Charles Seribner 's Sons. 
Nutting's Latin Eeader: American Book Company. 
Fabulae Faciles: Longmans, Green & Company. 
Reynolds' Latin Reader: D. C. Heath & Company. 

Latin IV. 

Viri Romae. 

Via Latina. 

Eutropius. 

Nepos, Lives. 

Caesar, Gallic War, Civil War. 

Latin V. 

Sallust, Catiline, Jugurthine War. 
Cicero, Letters. 
Ovid Metamorphoses. 
Vergil. 

Latin VI. 

Vergil. 

Cicero, de Senectute, de Amicitia. 

Ovid, Fasti, Tristia. 

Livy, Books I, XXI, XXII. 

Horace, Odes. 

Tacitus, Agricola. 

Pliny, Letters. 

Other books good for beginners are: 

Smith : Allyn & Bacon. 

Perkins: Benjamin H. Sanborn & Company. 

Ritchie 's First Steps : Longmans, Green & Company. 

Barss : D. C. Heath & Company. 

Collar, Daniell & Jenkins: Ginn & Company. 

Kirtland & Rogers : D. Appleton & Company. 



69 

Good direct-method books are: 

Chickering: Charles Scribner's Sons. 
Primus Annus: Oxford Press, New York. 
Deeem Fabulae: Oxford Press. 



FRENCH. 



Aims. 



The aim of instruction in a modern foreign language is 
highly complex. To one group of students fluency in 
speaking the language will prove of special value ; to an- 
other, ability to read foreign newspapers and periodicals 
in connection with literary, artistic, or scientific pursuits; 
to a third, so thorough a reading knowledge as to make the 
study of the literature a source of profit and pleasure ; to a 
fourth, facility in writing the language for commercial 
purposes. 

"Whatever be the appeal to the student because of his 
special needs or aptitudes, the successful study of a foreign 
language gives him a new point of view toward his mother 
tongue. He acquires a better understanding of its struc- 
ture. He increases his working vocabulary, and as he be- 
comes more sensitive to shades of meaning through compar- 
ison and discrimination, he develops greater precision in 
the relation of words to thought. 

In recent years the tendency has been to emphasize the 
utilitarian, rather than the cultural or disciplinary, 
values in the study of a foreign language. The fact re- 
mains that power and breadth are to be derived from 
such study, and that it should be carried on in such a way 
as to furnish means of development and to add to one 's life 
a permanent intellectual interest. 

One great purpose of foreign-language study is to create 
so deep an interest in the country, its people, literature, 
history, and civilization that the student may be led to 
broaden his acquaintance with the country after finishing 
his school course. His study of the country should inspire 



70 

him so to apply the lessons learned from it that he may 
better understand the problems of his own country and be 
better prepared to do his part in solving them. In other 
words, because of his study he should become a better 
American citizen. 

The concrete aim of the teaching of French in the junior 
and the senior high schools may be best expressed in the 
words of the originators of the reform method: ''Correct 
pronunciation, reading ability developed by means of 
speaking facility, with grammar as a means and not as an 
end." 

While ability to speak is to be regarded as secondary to 
the ability to read, it is unjustifiable and unnecessary for 
a pupil to spend from two to four years on the study of 
French and not be able to express orally simple thoughts in 
an intelligible manner. 

Summary of Aims. 

1. To pronounce the language with sufficient accuracy 
to appreciate its beauty and to catch its spirit. 

2. To acquire a live, working vocabulary that can be 
used in conversation and in reading. 

3. To understand the structure of the language. 

4. To obtain a better command of English. 

5. To acquire the habit of reading French out/side the 
classroom. 

6. To lay a basis for the appreciation of French litera- 
ture. 

7. To study sympathetically the life and history of the 
French people in France and in America. 

8. To broaden the student's horizon and make him a 
better citizen. 

Standards. 

The student who begins French in the junior high 
school and continues it during four years should at the end 



71 

of this period obtain a sufficient mastery of the language, 
to enable him: 

1. To read aloud correctly and fluently ordinary 
French. 

2. To carry on a simple conversation. 

3. To read understandingly and without translating a 
passage of ordinary narrative or easy description.. Ability 
to do this is to be tested by a resume, preferably in French. 

4. To translate accurately, not literally, into English 
the thought expressed in a passage of medium difficulty. 

5. To explain the iisual grammatical constructions in- 
volved in conversation and reading. 

6. To write with approximate correctness from dicta- 
tion, to transcribe simple conversation, and to write with 
reasonable accuracy a letter or a free composition on a 
subject requiring only an everyday vocabulary. 

7. To show a reasonable knowledge of French customs 
and of the leading characters and events of French history, 
including the experiences and achievements of the French 
in America. 

Reading Requirements. 

8. French I : fifty to one hundred pages. 
French II: two hundred pages. 
French III: four hundred pages. 
French IV: six hundred pages. 

Suggestions. ' 

DIRECT METHOD. 

While it may be argued that the teaching of a foreign 
language for practical uses only or for cultural ends exclu- 
sively is not justifiable, it must be admitted that when the 
language is taught in such a manner as to serve both pur- 
poses, the time given to such study is well spent. To ac- 
complish the aims of the French course and to meet the 



72 

standards prescribed, a direct method should be employed. 
The teacher should choose a form of direct method which, 
when rightly used, will combine all the advantages claimed 
for the various grammar, translation, or natural methods. 
The method should also be adapted to the age of the pupils. 
It should capitalize the dramatic instinct of the adolescent 
and his desire to speak a language other than his own. The 
study of a foreign language in the junior high school fol- 
lows naturally and supplements the work in English of 
grades five and six. 

The work of the first year must be taken slowly and 
thoroughly. At the beginning practically all of it must be 
done in the classroom to avoid inaccuracies. The chief 
objection to most direct method teaching, even when done 
by teachers who have complete mastery of the language, 
is that it lacks definiteness and is therefore conducive to 
superficiality. The teacher must keep a careful and de- 
tailed record of the ground covered and make the work 
cumulative. In no other way is it possible to lay a broad 
and solid basis for future work in the language. The main 
purpose of the instruction of the first two years is the 
formation of habit, not the acquiring of information. We 
must teach the language and not about the language. 
■ Two distinct types of direct method are in common use : 

(1) The object method, which is largely descriptive. The 
conversation centers about people and objects found in the 
classroom, school, home, street, etc., with the introduction 
of details as to size, number, color, etc. If this plan is fol- 
lowed, the nouns should be used immediately and con- 
stantly with verbs other than to he or to have. 

(2) The series method, which is distinctly narrative and 
lays the emphasis on the verb. At first the various acts of 
the series are expressed in the first person singular of the 
present tense and are arranged chronologically. Each sen- 
tence answers the question, ''What happens next?" The 
pupils learn the series by heart, reciting it singly and in 
concert. So far as is possible the action expressed in each 



73 

verb is performed or imitated as the sentence is said. 
When the use of the first person is mastered, the series is 
repeated with a change of person and, when necessary, 
with a corresponding change in the form of the verb. 
Later each series is used with a change of tense, addition 
of adjectives and adverbs, and various other modifications. 
By this method conversation and practical grammar are 
taught at the same time. 

■Conversation. ■ 

The primary receptive organ of speech is the ear. 
Therefore, the speaking of a language furnishes the nat- 
ural and logical approach both to reading and writing. 

Conversation arouses immediate interest and, if con- 
tinued faithfully, proves the best means of sustaining it; 
Because of the opportunity for self-activity and self- 
expression on the part of the pupils, the socialized recita- 
tion follows as a natural consequence. The study furnishes 
its own motivation. 

All directions should be given in French and, whenever 
reasonable, should produce an oral, as well as physical, 
reaction from the members of the class. The pupils should 
"be required to give French answers to questions asked in 
Prench. This is practice in real composition. After a few 
weeks French should be the language of the classroom. 
The pupils should be permitted to use French only, in 
■speaking to one another while in the room and should be 
encouraged to keep up the practice whenever they meet. 
A French club is easily organized and managed and is a 
^reat help in fostering conversation. The enthusiastic 
teacher who is prepared for her work and is consistent in 
the matter of speaking French in the class and, whenever 
possible, outside the class, will find no lack of en,thusiasm. 

Class work in conversation must not be haphazard. It 
must be purposeful and must proceed by logical steps. At 
first the pupils' answers to questions should be in the 
■exact words given them by the teacher. 



74 

Common sense will suggest to the teacher when it is 
wiser to use English than to waste an undue amount ol 
time over explanations in French. It will usually be ad- 
visable to restate the matter in French for the sake of the 
final impression. 

After reading has begun, the conversation should be 
based on the text. At first, questions will be so framed that 
the answers may be in the exact words of the passage read. 
Complete sentences should be required in all answers. As 
soon as the class has mastered a set of questions and 
answers orally, they should be written on the board by the 
teacher for the pupils to copy into their notebooks. The 
questionnaire thus obtained should be used for further 
oral practice and for written work, including dictation. 

Pronunciation. 

One of the strongest arguments in favor of the introduc- 
tion of foreign-language study into the lower grades is the 
greater ease with which children learn to pronounce cor- 
rectly. While greater facility could undoubtedly be thus 
obtained, the majority of children from twelve to fourteen 
years of age have vocal organs sufficiently plastic and are 
still sufficiently imitative and lacking in self-consciousness 
to justify the delay. 

Careful attention to the pronunciation of French is es- 
sential for several reasons: 

(1) The learner is forced to adopt some sort of name 
for each combination of letters that he sees, whether he 
says the word silently or audibly. The forming of a cor- 
rect habit at the start (a) makes the acquiring of a satis- 
factory pronunciation of French entirely possible, (b) 
obviates the necessity of the teacher's irritating and futile 
interruption of reading to correct mistakes during the 
later stages of the course, (c) saves an incalculable amount 
of time, (d) prevents the pupils from becoming discour- 
aged. 



75 

(2) The interest of the pupils is far greater. The 
beauty of the spoken language is one of the teacher's 
greatest assets and should not be lost. It makes a strong 
appeal to the adolescent. Furthermore, boys and girls 
seem to know instinctively whether their French sounds 
like French and gauge their interest accordingly. Unless 
i-t is well pronounced, the spirit of the language is largely 
lost. 

(3) If the pupil is to understand spoken French or 
make himself understood by French people, he must have 
an adequate pronunciation. 

Phonetics. 

The teaching of pronunciation should rest upon a strong 
phonetic basis. This is a fundamental principle as well as 
one of the chief characteristics of direct-method teaching. 
The thoroughness with which the sounds of the language 
should be taught cannot be overemphasized. In teaching 
pronunciation, the American teacher, who has a good work- 
ing knowledge of phonetics, may easily prove superior to 
the native teacher who does not understand the difficulties 
encountered by American pupils. Young children are able 
to catch the sounds by imitation, but those of junior high 
school age or over must be taught the conscious use of the 
organs of speech. 

While every pupil must receive individual attention, 
drill in concert, especially on new sounds, is strongly rec- 
ommended. The drill in unison should not continue so 
long that some of the members of the class will acquire the 
habit of letting the rest of the class do all the work. Daily 
practice during the first half-year should be given on 
vowels, syllables, words, breath-groups, and sentences, and 
special attention paid to intonation. Until sufficient drill 
has been given to make the pronunciation of the French 
sounds and their combinations absolutely automatic, the 
class should not see a French word or even a letter. The 



76 

greatest obstacle to acquiring a correct French accent is 
the visual resemblance of French to English, since there 
is not a syllable in French that has an exact oral counter- 
part in English. 

When the class has thoroughly mastered the formation 
of the sounds and when a sufficient knowledge of the spoken 
language has been obtained to make the beginning of read- 
ing and writing advisable, time should be taken for the 
transition from oral to written work. 

Transition Period. 

This is the crucial point in the plan thus far outlined. 
If the transition is not successfully made, much of the 
value of the phonetic drill will be lost. The following is 
suggested as a mode of procedure : 

The teacher names a vowel sound, has the class repeat it 
after her, and then writes on the board the letter or com- 
bination of letters composing the sound. The class names 
the sound again. A second sound is taken up in the same 
manner. The exercise continues in this way until all the 
vowel sounds and combinations, including nasals, have been 
written by the teacher and pronounced many times by the 
class. After a sound is written, the teacher reviews the 
sounds already represented on the board. The next step 
consists of drill on vowel sounds in combination with con- 
sonants. At this point the French alphabet should be 
learned, to lay a basis for spelling in French. Practice 
should b^ given in naming both vowels and consonants as 
the teacher writes them on the board, singly, in syllables, 
and in easy words. All the French that has been learned 
orally and has become a means of expressing thought 
should be reduced to writing by the teacher and copied 
by the pupils into their notebooks. At first the teacher 
will write the materials in the presence of the class, re- 
quiring the pupils to read with the same accuracy of sound- 
formation and intonation that they have been accustomed 



77 

to use before seeing French. The material of the note- 
books will be used for practice in reading and for dictation. 

After the writing point has been reached, great em- 
phasis should be placed on the division of words into syl- 
lables both for the sake of pronunciation and to avoid 
difficulty in spelling. The French names of the letters 
should be used from the start, and care should be taken 
that they are properly uttered. 

The memorizing of poems, songs, and anecdotes is rec- 
ommended for their value in perfecting pronunciation and 
in rendering the spirit of the language. 

Phonetic symbols should not he used with the class, but 
the teacher should be sufficiently familiar with them to be 
able to read the transcription employed by the Interna- 
tional Phonetic Association. 

Beading. 

In teaching children to read their mother tongue, it has 
been found that the emphasis at first should be upon 
thought rather than form. The same is true in the case of 
a foreign language. If the transition from oral to written 
work described under the section on Phonetics is success- 
fully made, a long step has been taken toward reading 
without translating. The French learned orally becomes 
the first material for reading. 

The use of pictures will be found helpful. By carefully 
prepared questions the teacher will utilize the French 
already acquired by the class to bring out as much as pos- 
sible of the story contained in the picture, adding such 
details as she desires. She will then write the story on the 
board, the pupils reading each sentence aloud as soon as 
she has written it and later copying it into their note- 
books. The recitation of the next day will be upon this 
story. It will consist of oral and written answers to ques- 
tions. On another day the story will be told or written 
from memory. 



78 

If the teacher is not prepared to use conversation as the 
approach to reading, she will choose a book carefully ar- 
ranged for beginners and containing an interesting story 
with questions and grammatical drill based upon it. She 
will permit as little translation as possible, especially at 
first. 

By a strictly direct method in a four years' course a text 
would not be introduced before, the end of the fourth or 
fifth month. Every book chosen should be thoroughly 
French and deal with the life of French-speaking people. 

After sufficient practice in reading the pupils will pre- 
pare and ask their classmates questions on a passage read 
and later on an episode or a whole story. This kind of 
work leads naturally to the giving of oral and written sum- 
maries. 

Reading should be both intensive and extensive. It 
should be interesting to the pupils and varied in character. 
Fiction, plays, and history should be represented in the 
choice of texts. 

After the second year, supplementary reading should 
be done outside of class. This reading should be done 
for the sake of the story. The pupils should be instructed 
to look up only the words necessary to get the sense or 
which arouse interest as to their meaning. In Class III 
there should be at least two hundred pages and in Class 
IV three hundred pages of supplementary reading in addi- 
tion to the regular requirement. 

Every class that has had French a half-year or more 
should have access to French newspapers and magazines. 
These may be profitably used as sources of material for 
conversation and reports. In the daily exercises of French 
classes there should be reports by teacher and pupils of 
current French history. The teacher who limits her work 
to the study of French language and French literature, 
misses a great opportunity. 



79 

Translation. 

French into English. After the habit of thinking in 
French is firmly fixed, frequent translation into idiomatic 
English should be required. It should not be looked upon 
as a method of teaching reading but as a means of testing 
the pupil's understanding of the text. The teacher should 
never hesitate to call for the translation of a passage if 
she has any doubt as to the pupil's taking in the thought. 

Translation affords excellent training in the choice of 
words. It may be extremely valuable as an exercise in 
English and should be correlated with the work of the 
English department of the school. From time to time writ- 
ten translations should be passed upon by the teacher of 
French for accuracy of thought, and by the teacher of Eng- 
lish for the form of expression. If teachers of French bear 
in mind constantly that they are teaching a living tongue 
and not dissecting a dead body of language facts, they will 
be in little danger of overdoing translation. 

English into French. There should be very little trans- 
lation from English into French, as this process is the 
greatest hindrance to acquiring the habit of thinking in the 
foreign language. Students preparing for college ex- 
aminations must be given special training in so-called com- 
position during the last year of their course. This should 
be based on passages of simple idiomatic French. Constant 
practice in oral and written French is the best drill in real 
composition. 

Grammar. 

In the direct method, grammar is not neglected. It is 
not taught as a separate science with disconnected sen- 
tences invented to illustrate rules, but is made to serve as a 
guide to correctness of expression. To this end it must be 
taught inductively. From the first lessons changes in 
grammatical forms are introduced, and the habit of using 
correctly different persons, numbers, genders, tenses, nega- 



80 

\ 
tives, etc., is acquired. A few points taught slowly and 
mastered thoroughly are of more value than much ground 
covered hastily. After the pupils have become familiar 
with correct French, they are led to discover the 
principles and formulate the rules of construction. Before 
the end of the course the principles and rules should be 
systematized and reviewed. For this purpose a formal 
French grammar will be found of value. 

Dictation. 

No other single exercise has the potential value of dicta- 
tion. It combines ear-training, thought-getting, and the 
application of grammatical principles. From the time the 
class begins to write, there should be almost daily practice 
in this exercise throughout the course. At first it should 
consist of questions and answers or connected passages 
carefully studied. After the second year both prepared 
and unprepared dictations are desirable. 

Accessories. 

The following illustrative material is suggested: books 
of songs, lantern slides, photographs, foreign post cards, 
maps, plans of cities, wall pictures showing French scenes, 
and architecture, copies of works of art, illustrated books, 
reviews, and newspapers. 

The use of the phonograph is recommended, not for any 
of the so-called language-phone methods, but to reproduce 
French songs and especially recitations by masters of 
French diction. 

Correspondence with French students is highly valuable 
when each student writes carefully in his own language. 

The desirability of forming French clubs has already 
been mentioned. Games, charades, and simple plays may 
be used to stimulate interest and furnish practice in speak- 
ing French. 



81 

BihUography. 

The books listed here are in no way prescribed but are 
merely suggested for use with a direct method. 

BEGINNERS BY OBJECT METHOD. 

Batchelor: Mon Premier Livre de Francais (Clarendon 
Press). 

Dubrule: Le Francais pour Tous (Ginn). 

Walter and Ballard: Beginners' French, revised edition 
(Scribner). (For beginners in senior high school.) 

SOURCE BOOKS FOR SERIES METHOD. 

Gouin : Art of Teaching and Studying Languages (Long- 
mans, Green). 

Themoin : Premier et Deuxieme Livres pour les Enfants ; 
Cours de Francais pour Adultes (Hachette). 

METHOD BASED ON READING. 

Meras: Le Premier Livre; Le Second Livre (American 
Book Co.). 

BOOKS CONTAINING MATERIAL FOR TEACHER 's USE WITH CLASS. 

Alge, Eippmantind Buell: First French Book (Newson). 

Armancl: Grammaire Elementaire (Heath). 

Bruce: Dictees Francaises (Heath); Grammaire Fran- 
eaise (Heath). 

Fraser and Squ^ : French Grammar, complete edition 
(Heath). 

La Fontaine: One Hundred Fables (Ginn). 

Larive et Fleury: La Deuxieme Annee de Grammaire 
(Colin, Paris). 

Rippmann and Buell: French Daily Life (Newson). 

Super: Anecdotes Faeiles (Heath). 

Chansons de France and Vieilles Chansons et Rondes 
(Plon, Paris). 



82 
Reading. 

FIRST YEAR. 

Ballard: Short Stories for Oral French (Scribner). 

Bierman and Frank: Conversational French Reader 
(AUyn & Bacon). 

Bruce: Lectures Faciles (Heath). 

Capus: Pour Charmer nos Petits (Heath). 

Guerber: Contes et Legendes, Part I (American Book 
Co.). 

Malot: Sans Famille in Le Premier Livre (American 
Book Co.). 

Meras and Roth: Petits Contes de France (American 
Book Co.). (Or first half of second year.) 

deSegur: Les Malheurs de Sophie, edited by Bement 
(Sanborn). 

Snow and Lebon: Easy French (Heath). 

SECOND YEAR. 

Benton: Easy French Plays (Scott). 

Bruno: Le Tour de la France (American Book Co.), 
(Heath), (Holt). 

Daudet: Le Petit Chose (Heath) ; Neuf Contes Choisis 
(Holt). 

David: Chez Nous (Holt). 

Dupres: Drames et Comedies (American Book Co.). 

Fontaine: En France (Heath). 

Francois et Giroud: Easy French Reading (Holt) ; Sim- 
ple French (Holt). 

Genin: Le Petit Tailleur Bouton (Heath). 

Halevy: Labbe Constantin (American Book Co.), 
(Ginn), (Heath), (Holt). 

Labiche et Martin: Le Voyage de Monsieur Perrichon 
(American Book Co.), (Ginn), (Heath), (Holt); La 
Poudre aux Yeux (American Book Co.), (Heath), (Holt). 

Lazare: Contes et Nouvelles (Ginn). 

Porchat: Le Berger et le Proscrit (Clarendon Press). 

Super: French Reader (Heath). 



83 



THIRD TEAR. 



About: Le Roi des Montagnes, abridged edition (Holt). 

Allen and Schoell: French Life (Holt). (Basis for con- 
versation. ) 

Bazin : Le Ble qui Leve (Holt). 

Coppee: On Rend 1' Argent (Ginn). 

Cramer: Ca et La en France (American Book Co.). 

Daudet: Tartarin de Tarascon (American Book Co.), 
(Ginn), (Heath). 

Erckmann-Chatrian : Le Conscrit de 1813 (Heath), 
(Holt). 

France: Le Livre de Mon Ami (Holt). 

Laurie: Memoires d'un Collegien (American Book Co.). 

Lavisse : Histoire de France, cours elementaire (Heath). 
(Recommended for careful study; could be read in second 

year.) 
-Mairet: La Petite Princesse (American Book Co.). 

Merimee: Colomba (Ginn), (Heath), (Holt). 

Osgood: La France Heroique (Heath). 

Scribe: Bataille de Dames (Heath). 

FOURTH TEAR. 

Bazin: Les Oberle (Heath). 

Dumas: Le Comte de Monte Cristo (Holt) ; La Tulipe 
Noire (Heath). 

France: Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (Holt). 

Hugo: Quatre-Vingt-Treize (Holt); Les Miserables 
(Holt). 

Lamartine : Jeanne dArc (Hachette). 

Loti: Peecheur d'Islande (Heath). 
■ Maupassant: Huit Contes Choisis (Heath). 

Moraud: Sous les Armes (Holt). 

Sandeau: Mile, de la Seigliere (Holt). 

Super: Histoire de France (Holt). 

Verne : Tour du Monde en Quartre-Vingts Jours 
(Heath). 

deVigny: La Canne de Jonc (Heath). 



84 



PEDAGOGY AND REFERENCE. 



Bahlsen: The Teaching of Modern Languages (Ginn). 

Breul : The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages 
(Cambridge, Univ. Press). 

Geddes: French Pronunciation (Oxford, Univ. Press). 
An excellent, practical treatise. 

Gouin: Art of Teaching and Studying Languages (Long- 
mans, Green). Should be read and studied by every teacher 
of languages. 

Handschin : The Teaching of Modern Languages in the 
United States (Bureau of Education, No. 510). Historical 
treatise with exhaustive bibliography. 

Jespersen: How to Teach a Foreign Language (Macmil- 
lan). 

Jousset: La France geographique illustree (2 vols.) (La- 
rousse, Paris). 

Krause: Direct Method in Modern Languages (Scrib- 
ner). A strong plea for direct method.- 

Larousse: Petit Larousse Illustre. (An all-French dic- 
tionary. ) 

Methods of Teaching Modern Languages, edition of 1915 
(Heath). Especially important chapters by Wm. B. Snow, 
pp. 109 and 144 ; W. R. Price, p. 124 ; E. Spanhoofd, p. 207. 

Passy-Hempl: International French Dictionary (Hinds, 
Noble). Pronunciation indicated in phonetic transcription. 

Rousselot et Laclotte : Precis de Prononciation Franeaise 
(Weller, Paris). A thoroughly scientific exposition of 
standard pronunciation. 

"Walter : French Lessons. A demonstration of the direct 
method (Scribner). 

Yersin, M. and J.: Phono-rhythmic Method of Pronun-. 
ciation (Lippincott). Popular and practical. 

CHAPTERS FROM EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 

Hollister: High School and Class Management, XVIII 
(Heath). 



85 

Inglis: Principles of Secondary Education, XIII 
(Houghton, Mifflin). 

Johnston: High School Education, XIV (Scribner). 

Judd: Psychology of High School Subjects, X (Ginn). 

Monroe: Principles of Secondary Education, XI (Mac- 
millan ) . 

Snedden: Problems of Secondary Education, XIV 

(Houghton, Mifflin). 
I 

SPANISH. 

The elimination of German courses in high schools has 
opened the way for a second foreign language in school 
programs. Spanish has a worthy literature and is with 
English the great language of the Americas. When intro- 
duced in the lower classes of secondary schools, the ped- 
agogy should follow closely the suggestions given for 
similar French courses. 

In this program, two courses are planned for boys of the 
upper years of the Commerce and Business curricula. The 
design of these courses is to familiarize boys, who are pre- 
paring for business and clerical positions, with the com- 
mercial language of Central and South America. A 
necessary part of these courses should be much study of 
the history, the geography and the life of the countries of 
Spanish America. 

There should be extensive reading and the following 
standards are tentative only : 

Spanish V: 300 pages. 
Spanish VI: 500 pages. 



86 
CHAPTER III. 



Social Sciences. 
history and civics i and 11. 



Aim. 



These courses aim to appeal strongly to ijlie idealized 
imagination of children in the beginning of the adolescent 
period. The courses center abont (1) great leaders, (2) 
dramatic deeds, (3) manners and methods of living, and 
concern themselves little with formal outlines, with cause 
and effect, with presidential administrations and with 
logical development. 

By stories, study, pictures and dramatization, the 
teacher leads the boy through the heroic past of history 
while he relives heroic deeds and in his day dreams is 
Raleigh throwing his coat before the majestic queen or 
Balboa looking over the uncharted sea, "silent upon a 
peak in Darien, " and the girl is Priscilla at the wheel or 
Pocahontas in the lodge of her tribe. By study, observa- 
tion and participation, the teacher of civics brings her 
pupils to realize their intimate connection with, and partic- 
ipation in, the life of the community and the state. 

Standards. 

1. The careful study of the history of the United States. 

2. The weekly study of current history. 

3. The study of the government of town or city, of state 
and nation. 

4. The reading of the constitution of the state. 

Suggestions. 

1. An adequate outline for this course is printed on 
pages 94 to 104 of the elementary program. It does not 
seem necessary to repeat it here but throughout additions 



87 

should be made to make clear the vital part New Hamp- 
shire has played in the nation's story. The following 
topics and others should be added to the outline under the 
sections indicated: 

Grade VII: I, John Smith and the Isles of Shoals. 

II, The Scotch-Irish in Ireland and New Hampshire, 

III, The New Hampshire Indians, their villages, chiefs and 
life. IV, Beginnings of the Vermont-New Hampshire 
boundary dispute. New Hampshire's iron mines. Wal- 
dron. Rogers. Stark. Sullivan. Langdon. Belknap. 
William Pepperell at Louisburg. V, Colonial life in New 
Hampshire. New Hampshire border towns through one 
hundred years of Indian warfare. Grade VIII : I, New 
Hampshire tea parties. The pine tree riot. The capture 
of Fort William and Mary. Bunker Hill. The New Hamp- 
shire grants. II, The New Hampshire loyalists. Ill, Fi- 
nancial difficulty in New Hampshire under the confeder- 
acy! Attempted secession of New Hampshire towns. V, 
New Hampshire canals and post roads. VII, New Hamp- 
shire railroads and the coming of the Irish. VIII, The 
war factories and the coming of the French Canadians. 
XII, Immigration from the Mediterranean states. 

In these courses teachers must lead classes to a sympa- 
thetic interest in all races which form the citizenship of 
our new New Hampshire. From the texts and from the 
instruction must be eliminated all references or statements 
which would perpetuate suspicion, distrust or hatred that 
exists between nations and has been fostered by some teach- 
ers and some books against the mother country, England, 
or the great northern sister, Canada. Classes should also 
be taught the heroic history and the inspiring ideals of the 
newer racial elements of our state : as the Irish, the Cana- 
dian French, the Greek, the Italian, the Scandinavian, the 
Lithuanian and the Armenian. It is recognized that 
schools should devote a week or more to the study of the 
states of Central and South America, and at least two 
weeks to the study of Canada that broader interests may 



88 

be developed in the greater America. The teacher can 
find material in the- Geographic Magazine, in books of 
travel, in Shepherd's Latin America and in the History of 
Canada published by the Department of Education at 
Toronto. 

2. The current history, which must be a part of the 
work of years I and II, may well be combined with the 
history of these two years. In this connection elementary 
geography is to be retained and made vital. The school- 
room atlases and maps should be used to locate all places 
under discussion. 

3. There are now upon the market a number of inter- 
esting texts, entitled "Community Civics." These should 
be introduced for reading and discussion but the instruc- 
tion should lead to the book and not from it. It shouid 
be based upon the political and civic affairs of the town 
where the children live. The spring repairing of local 
roads, the preparation of the family inventory for the use 
of the assessors, the health officer as he enforces vaccina- 
tion, give the proper start toward the teaching of trans- 
portation, taxation and public health and make intelligible 
the discussion of texts available for class use. During the 
year the alert teacher can find in local activities the proper 
approach to all the subjects generally listed under Civics. 

4. The law requires the reading of the constitution of 
New Hampshire and of the United States during the last 
year of this course. The spirit of this requirement may 
be met if the class is led to an interest in the responsibili- 
ties and work of the legislative, executive and judicial de- 
partments of the state. This may be done in part by visits 
to the state capitol and to state institutions, and in part by 
well-prepared expositions by the teacher. 

HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION III. 

Since satisfactory courses in ancient history, European 
history and English history are outlined at length in the 
secondary program of 1915, they are not repeated here as 



89 

they are available for all schools that wish to continue to 
give these courses. Most pupils have in their upper high 
school only two history courses, one in ancient history and 
the one in United States constitutional history. For this 
reason it has seemed best in this program to reorganize 
the course in ancient history into the course in history of 
civilization which follows. 

Aim. 

This is a first-year course in history designed to cover 
the whole historic field and to show from what sources, 
hy what means and through what experiences man has 
come to his present degree of civilization. It will natur- 
ally be followed by the sixth-year course in constitutional 
history, a course which shoAvs the development and appli- 
cation of our ideals of representative government and per- 
sonal , freedom. 

Standards. 

1. The completion of a satisfactory textbook of ancient 
history and one of European history with the additions 
and exceptions given below. 

2. Supplementary reading at least equal in amount to 
the textbook work. 

3. Board and map work. 

4. Constant reference to events of modern history. 

Suggestions. 

The study should center upon : 

A. The lives and deeds of great leaders. 

B. Dramatic incidents and romantic movements. 

C. The lives of the peoples who have contributed to 
t)ur civilization. 

Each pupil should be provided with a good ancient his- 
tory and a good medieval and modern or European his- 



90 

tory. In addition the room should be furnished with 
many of the simpler • histories, biographies and books of 
travel. It should also have maps, atlases and magazines; 
of current history and geography, as the Geographic- 
Magazine, Travel and the Literary Digest. 

Class assignments should be topical and in conformity 
with the chapter on "The Teaching of Any Topic" as 
given in this program. The books in the hands of the- 
pupils should not be studied page by page and the "rec- 
itation" ought to occupy less than one-third of the 
time. Much of the material in these books should be 
omitted so that the teacher may select the parts suitable 
for the work of this year. After preparation the teacher, 
orally, should present the new topic, should direct the 
class to the proper sources and should guide pupils in 
their study. The vocabulary of the ordinary textbook in 
ancient history or European history is beyond the com- 
prehension of first-year classes. 

Every teacher should also have the detailed outline of 
this course, with accompanying bibliography, given in In- 
stitute Circular No. 90. 

I. The Beginmngs of Culture, 10 periods. 

A. The Tree Divellers. Show here how man separated 
himself from other animals by inventing language and 
simple tools and bequeathing these to his descendants. It 
was the period of the individual. 

B. The Cave Divellers. At this time man invented fire 
and clothing. The cave life made society desirable, pro- 
duced the clan and modified man's physical form. 

C. The Lake and Sea Dwellers. Man found a new 
source of food supply and overcame the barriers that had 
confined him to a restricted home. 

Sufficient material for the above topics will be found 
in elementary readers, in the introduction to various an- 



91 

cient histories and in books of travel, geographical read- 
ers and magazines. In each ease the approach should be 
through the backward peoples of today who live under 
these primitive conditions. Then it should be shown that 
this condition was once universal. 

II. The White Race, 10 periods. 

A. The Herdsmen. Consider the domestication of an- 
imals as told in the introductory chapters of ancient his- 
tories and in the encyclopedias. Show the changes in 
bodily form that evolution and domestication have 
brought to the horse and the dog. Study the life of the 
herdsmen of our own western plains and of Australia, also 
that of the Arabs and the South African cattlemen. Re- 
call the Biblical stories of tribal life. This period devel- 
oped from the clan, the tribe, ruled by a patriarch and by 
making constant the supply of food, rendered advance in 
culture possible. 

B. The Temperate Lands. The beginnings of civilized 
life were doubtless in the tropics where the struggle for 
natural existence was easy but the time came when rest- 
less and ambitious men having forced their way into 
temperate lands found there conditions of life that made 
rapid advance possible. 

C. The Farmer. Study the Avork of Luther Burbank 
and others who show how foods and fruits are developed 
from wild stocks. Recall the history of the potato, to- 
bacco and Indian corn. From the encyclopedia and other 
sources teach the origin of our common fruits and vege- 
tables. Then show that the domestication of plants first 
made possible a fixed home and the permanent family as 
we know it now. 

D. To Europe. In this way a white race had devel- 
oped in the temperate lands of West Central Asia. This 
stock multiplied and* from this source spread as the more 



92 

vigorous families set out to find land for new homes. 
Some went south into India, — the Hindus, — some south- 
west into Persia, some west through Asia Minor and 
founded the southern European nations. Still others went 
west, north of the Caspian Sea and, as Franks, Teutons 
and Slavs, became the ancestors of the northern European 
people. Compare with this the settlement of this country 
on its seaboard by different races and the gradual winning 
of the west by migrating families. 

III. The Other Races, 5 periods. 

A. The Black Race. Make some study of the African 
negro. He has language, fire, simple tools and some do- 
mesticated plants and animals but he has remained in the 
enervating tropics and has been distanced by the white 
race. His contribution to our civilization has been labor, 
sometimes free but often slave. 

B. The Yellow Race. Several days should be spent in 
making plain that the yellow race has developed a civiliza- 
tion different and distinct from the white race. This civ- 
ilization has contributed little to our own as the two have 
seldom come in contact. 

IV. The Early Nations, 15 periods. 

A. The Egyptians. Study particularly the geographic 
reasons for an early advance in civilization in Egypt. 
Study also the life of this people, their religion, pyramids, 
tombs and customs. 

B. The Assyrians and Others. The special study is of 
the buildings, the cuneiform writings and the religious 
ideas that influenced the Hebrew faith and persisted as 
medieval superstitions. 

C. The Helrews. The study of these periods should 
center about Abraham and the patriarchs, about Moses 



93 

and the Exodus and about David and Solomon. Make it 
evident that the great gift of this race to civilization has 
been religion! From the Hebrews have come two great 
religions of today, — Judaism and Christianity, — and from 
the Semitic cousins of the Hebrews — the Arabians — has 
come the Mohammedan religion. 

D. The Phoenicians and Others. They were the first 
navigators, the first international traders and they gave us 
our alphabet. 

V. The Greeks, 20 periods. 

A. Early Society. This should be a study of the life 
depicted in the Odyssey. The teacher should select appro- 
priate passages and tell them to the class and the class 
should read extensively in Palmer's Translation. 

B. Spartan Life. Briefly present the ideals and cus- 
toms of the Spartans. 

C. Athens. Center this study about (1) the dramatic 
events of the Persian Wars and the leaders Miltiades, 
Themistocles, Aristides. (2) Pericles and his splendid 
city. (3) Alcibiades and the Civil War. (4) Great men, 
thinkers and writers as Socrates and Demosthenes. 

D. Philip and Alexander. Spend much time on the 
stories that cluster about these two men. 

E. The Greek Conirihution. Determine that the con- 
tribution of the Greeks is in art, literature and ideals of 
personal freedom. 

VI. The Romans, 20 periods. 

A. The Early People. Read Macauley's Lays of An- 
cient Rome to understand the simple life of a sturdy peo- 
ple. 

B. Hanni'bal and the Carthaginian Wars. 



94 

C. Caesar, Master of Mefi. 

D. Augustus, the Emperor. 

E. The Roman Contribution. Determine that the con- 
tribution of the Romans was of their ideals as builders, 
conquerors, rulers and law givers. 

VII. Christianity and the Hebrew Genius, 5 periods. 

A. Paul, the Missionary. 

B. Christianity feared and hated. 

G. Christianity triumphant. 

D. The Hebrew Race. Teach this people as an honest, 
frugal, home-loving people of high spiritual ideals. They 
have shown to the world ability in business, commerce, 
finance and literature. 

VIII. The German Tribes, 5 periods. , 

Teach these as wild, virile, restless people with ideals of 
war and of personal liberty and with high respect for 
home and the family. Show also that they were drunkards, 
gamblers and barbarians. Read the first chapter of 
Taine's History of English Literature. Teach their mi- 
grations and the destruction of Rome. 

IX. The Arabians, 3 pei-iods. 

A. Mohammed and the spread of his faith to the Bat- 
tle of To^irs. 

B. Culture in Spain. Read the Alhambra. 

C. Notation, algebra and astro7iomy. 

X. The Dark Era, 17 periods. 

A. Charlemagne and the Franks. Use the material in 
Eginhard's Life. 



95 

B. Feudalism. Read the Idylls of the King and Ivan- 
lioe. Teach ideals of chivalry. 

C. The Medieval Church. Its splendid cathedrals, the 
friars and the monks. 

D. The Crusades. Teach as a great dramatic event. 
Show what the returning knights brought to Europe from 
the civilization of the east. 

E. The Great Awakening. Center this work entirely 
around inventors, discoverers and reformers, men like Ba- 
con, Copernicus, Galileo, Luther, Loyola. 

XI. National Heroes and Modern Nations, -50 periods. 

In each case the genius of each people should be studied 
through the ideals of national heroes, the present national 
position and character should be determined and the con- 
tribution to civilization recognized. 

A. The French. (1) Louis XIV and the Empire. (2) 
The rise of the people and the French Revolution. (3) 
The cherished ideals of "Liberty, Equality and Frater- 
nity" which solidified the nation during the world war. 
(4) Napoleon, the Great. (5) The France of Today: Its 
ideals and part in the war. 

B. The EngUsh. (1) Alfred, the Great. (2) The 
wresting of power from king and baron. (3) Ideals of the 
sacredness of chartered rights which caused a nation to 
rise in indignation at the invasion of Belgium. (4) The 
British Empire. (5) Modern England: Its ideals and 
aims in the war. (6) The Scotch and Irish and their con- 
tribution. 

C. The Germa7is. (1) The Germans and Frederick, a 
genius in war, unscrupulous, a patriarchal monarch. (2) 
The Prussians and Bismarck, the empire builder. (3) 
The Hohenzollerns and William, the war lord. (4) The 
Germany of 1914. 



96 

Note from the above the persistent ideals of systematic 
obedience, of war glory, and of success at any price which 
explain Germany's attitude in the great war. 

D. Peter the Great and the Russians. Peter represents 
his people : Young, masterful, simple in tastes, avaricious 
in desires. Show that the present Russian Revolution is 
the natural conclusion of his efforts. 

E. Columbus and the Spaniards. The colonizing ideal 
and an impoverished nation. 

F. Cavour, Garibaldi and the Italians. Study Italian 
unity and the present conflict for "Italia Irredompta. " 

G. Belgium, the country that gave all. 

H. The Republics of Central and South America. 
Study their racial origin, history and present condition. 

I. Canada. Our great sister of the North. 

/. American Ideals. 

XII. The Great War, 10 periods. 

Study its origin and its story. Show how the ideals and 
aspirations of the different nations led each to enter the 
war. Show that this is a world-old conflict for the free- 
dom of nations and the right of individual thought and 
personal dignity. It is the same contest that animated the 
Greeks in the Persian Wars, the French in their Revolu- 
tion, the English in gaining their charters, the Americans^ 
in 1776 and the Italians in assuming nationality. Teach * 
that this conflict must be fought again and again and that 
"eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." 

XIII. Peace, 5 periods. Study the crushing of the 
power of Germany and her allies, the terms of peace and 
the work of the peace conference. 



97 

XIV. Character of Modern Nations and Their Contribu- 
tion to Modern Life, 5 periods. 

The purpose here is to round up the course by giving 
pupils a sympathy for other peoples, an understanding of 
their ideals and an appreciation of their contribution to 
the world's culture, as: (1) The French, patriotism, 
thrift and taste; (2) The Germans, work, system and obe- 
dience; (3) The English, honesty, endurance, commerce; 
(4) The Italians, music; (5) etc. 

BiMiograpJi y . 

Ancient History: Breasted, Myers, West, Woolfson. 
European History : Breasted, Myers, Harding, Webster. 
A detailed bibliography is given in Institute Circular 
No. 90. 

UNITED STATES CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY VI. 

Aim. 

This is a senior course in history required by law of the 
state and designed to shoAV the origin and development 
of our ideals of representative government and of personal 
freedom, and to introduce the pupils to the responsibili- 
ties of full citizenship. It is not a course in political or 
military history, or one devoted to the study of biography 
or social conditions. The schools which merely enlarge 
the eighth-grade course in United States history with un- 
changed content and\ a longer and harder text are not 
meeting the legal requirement. The course has nothing 
to do with the Spanish explorers, with Indian tribes and 
settlements, with presidential administrations or with mil- 
itary success of leaders. It is, as the name indicates, a 
course in the constitutional history of the United States. 



98 



Standards. 



1. A study of national problems and policies witli their 
origin and significance through standard textbooks and 
collateral reading. 

2. An interpretation of the world activity for the year 
through a study of recent current history in its making. 

3. Active intetest maintained in affairs of local democ- 
racy through a first-hand study of town, state and na- 
tional government and administration. 



Suggestions. 



No. of 

Exercises. 



No. of 

Exercises. 



2 Teutonic Be- 
ginnings 



II 

5 The Great 
Charters 



III 

4 The Develop- 
ment of Par- 
liament 



IV 

5 Colonial Gov- 
ernment 



1. Organization 

2. Map of Pupils 



(Town 
I City 



3. Henry's Charter, Magna Charta, 
Confirmatio Chartarum 2 

4. Town) ^^. 

City \ History 3 



5. The Model Parliament, Divine 
Right of Kings vs. Parliament 2 
Pet. of Rights, Bill of Rights 

6. Town| ^ ■ . 

Qj,^y r Population and Industries 2 



7. Land Grants, Spanish, French, 
Dutch, English 1 

8. European Government of Colo- 
nies, Southern, N. E., Middle 1 

9. Town Meeting. Organization of 
Town Government 3 



99 



No. of 
Exercises. 

V 

20 Achievement 
of Indepen- 
dence 



No. of 
Exercises. 



10. Colonies Grow Independent 2 

11. Nullification of Charters, Andros' 
Tyranny 2 

12. Growth of Towns, Town Char- 
ters, Assemblies, New Hamp- 
shire's share in Colonial Wars 5 
Discontent with Royal Govern- 
ment 

13. Organization of Forms of City 
Government 8 

14. Struggle for Independence 2 

15. Declaration of Independence 1 



VI 



20 Constitution 16. Constitution of New Hampshire, 
. of New Hamp- History, Sources, Convention, 
shire and of Ratification, Analysis 

United States ^_ o, • -r, -, -, ■, (Town 

17. Services Rendered by ^QHy 

18. Articles of Confederation 

19. The northwest ordinance 



15 



20. Constitution of United States 



VII 

16 The Critical 
Period 



VIII 



21. Organization of the Government 3 

22. Washington's Farewell Address 2 

23. Foreign Relations 2 



9 The Jefferson- 24. Domestic Policy 2 

ian Princi- 25. Expansion - 2 

pies 26. Struggle for Neutral Rights 2 

27. Town Services, Finance 3 



IX 

Rise and 
Growth of 
the West 



28. Economic Reorganization 2 

29. City Services, Finance 1 

30. Westward Migration, Internal 
Improvements 1 



100 



No. of 
Exercises. 



No. of 

Exercises. 

31. Slavery and. the Missouri Com- 
promise 2 

32. County, Map, History, Govern- 
ment 3 



5 The Monroe 33. Services Rendered by County, 
Doctrine Finance 3 

34. Monroe Doctrine and. Panama 
Congress 2 



XI 

9 Federation 
Processes 



XII 

27 The Union 
Saved 



35. Reorganization and Jackson 2 

36. Nullification, Financial Questions 2 

37. State, Map, History, Government, 
Population, Industries, Services 5 



38. Anti-Slavery Agitation 3 

39. Texas and Mexico 3 

40. Secession 5 

41. Civil War 5 

42. Nation, ]\Iap, Government, Offices 
Filled, Services Rendered, Fi- 
nance 11 



XIII 

27 Constitutional 43 
Changes — 
Problems of 
Peace 



44. 
45. 
46. 



Reconstruction 
Political Problems 
Economic Problems 
Flexing the Constitution 



XIV 



22 United States 47. The Spanish War 
as a World 48. Imperialism 
Power . 49. The Panama Canal 

50.' Treaties, Hay-Pauncefoote, etc. 

51. History of the World War 



2 
1 
1 

2 
16 



Each teacher should have also Institute Circular No. 91, 
which gives a detailed outline of the course. 



101 

BihUography. 

A. For the Pupil. 

(1) A text in United States History, selected from the 

following : 

Adams & Trent — History of the United States. 

Andrews — History of the United States. 

Channing — Students' History of the United States. 

Fite — History of the United States. 

Forman — United States History. 

Hart — Essentials in American History. 

McLaughlin — History of the American Nation. 

Muzzey — American History. 

Thompson^History of the United States. 

West — History of the American People. 

(2) A text in Civil Government, selected from the fol- 

lowing : 

■ Ashby — The New Civics. 
Beard — American Government. 
Bojaiton — ^School Civics (Revised Edition). 
Bryce — The American Commonwealth. 
Dunn — The Community and the Citizen. 
Fiske — Civil Government in the United States (Rev. 

Ed.). 
Flickinger — Civic Government. 
Forman — Advanced Civics. 
Guitteau — Government and Politics in- the United 

States. 
Hinsdale — -The American Government (Rev. Ed.). 
Magruder — -American Government. 
Reed — Form and Function of American Government. 
Schwinn & Stevenson — Civil Government. 
Wilson— The State. 

(3) A loose-leaf notebook 8'' x IQi/a". (Filler should in-^ 

elude a quire of graph paper.) 

(4) Outline maps of New Hampshire, New England, 

United States, North Am^erica, Western Hemi- 
sphere, the World. 

(5) The Constitution of New Hampshire. 

(6) Subscription to a national weekly magazine. 



102 

B. For the Teacher-. . 

(1) The above and Bourne — The Teaching of History and 

Civics. 

(2) BaldMdn — The American Judiciary. 

(3) Channing & Hart — Guide to the Study of American 

History. 

(4) Gushing — History Syllabus for Secondary Schools. 

(5) Farlie — Municipal Administration. 

(6) Goodnow — City Government in the United States, 

(7) Hart — Actual Government. 

(8) Hinsdale — How to Study and Teach History. 

(9) Historical Sources in Schools. 
(10') Howe— The City. 

(11) Martin — Hints on Teaching History. 

(12) Eeport of Committee of Seven ("The Study of His- 

tory in Schools"). 

C. For the School. 

(1) The above and Colby — Selections from Sources of 

English History. 

(2) Channing & Hart — American History Leaflets. 

(3) Encyclopedia (published since 1910). 

(4) Farrand — American History Ilevie^v. 

(5) Piske — Beginnings of New England. 

(6) Piske — Critical Period of American History. 

(7) Piske — Discovery of America. 

(8) Piske — Dutch and Quaker Colonies. 

(9) Piske — Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. 

(10) Hart— Formation of the Union, 1750-1829 (Rev. 

Ed.). 

(11) Hart — A Source Book of American History. 

(12) Hill — Liberty Documents. 

(13) Hosmer — Anglo-Saxon Freedom, 

(14) Kendall — Source Book. 

(15) Lodge — A Short History of the English Colonies in 

America. 

(16) Mace — Method in History for Teachers and Students, 

(17) McDonald— Source Book, 

(18) Nicolay & Hay — ^Abraham Lincoln. 

(19) Parkan — Struggle for a Continent. 

(20) Steffens— The Shame of the Cities. 

(21) Stubbs — Constitutional History of England, 



103 

(22) Thwaites— The Colonies, 1492-1750 (Rev. Ed.). 

(23) Walker — Essentials in English History. 

(24) Wilson— Division and Eeunion, 1829-1889. 

(25) Nelson — History of the World War. 

(26) Manual of the New Hampshire General Court. 

(27) Report of the Thirteenth Census. 

(28) Reports of Town, City, County and State Officers 

(Current). 

(29) American History Review (Magazine). 

(30) American City (Magazine). 

(31) Congressional Record (Magazine). 

(32) Current History (Magazine). 

(33) Community Leaflets of Department of the Interior. 

(34) Bouton^History of New Hampshire, or 
Belknap — History of New Hampshire, 3 vols. 

(35) The New Hampshire Register (Current). 

(36) War Information Booklets. 

(37) A Daily Newspaper. 

(38) Wall Maps of New Hampshire, New England, The 

United States, North America, The World. 

(39) A Local Town History. 

(40) Colby — Manual of the Constitution of New Hamp- 

shire. 

(41) Revised Statutes. 

(42) Adams — An Outline Sketch of English Constitutional- 

History. 



, ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS PRACTICES VI. 

Aim. 

The general purpose of the study of economics in the 
senior year is to bring the pupils into actual touch with 
some of the essential realities of modern social and indus- 
trial life. It does not contemplate the technical problems 
of political economy or commercial law. It does propose 
to offer to all pupils before graduation an insight and par- 
ticipation in the ordinary activities of business, together 
with a consideration of some matters relating to personal 
welfare and success. 



104 

Standards. 

1. A competent teacher. This course may not be as- 
signed to any teacher who has spare time but must be 
taught by a teacher who by experience, study and prepa- 
ration is able to deal with the actual problems of citizen- 
ship and business. If no such teacher is available, the 
course should not be given. 

2. Satisfactory books for reference and study. Each 
pupil should have good textbooks on economics and one 
on business law and practice. The class should gather and 
put into usable form its collection of reference books and 
material. In the use of the textbook on economics, little 
stress should be placed upon generalities and technical 
terms. From the textbook in law should be omitted the 
intricacies of commercial law and all studies that are little 
likely to be within the experiences of the pupils. 

3. Project work. In each division of the course, there 
is to be practical work similar to that given in the follow- 
ing outline under references, projects and excursions. 

Suggestions. 

General Outline. 

Possessions (What we have) : • 

I. Property 6 weeks]- 

II. Money and Credit 8 weeks [-First Semester 

III. Taxation 4 weeksj 

Business (What we do) : 

IV. Industry 8 weeks] 

V. Insurance 4 weeks J-Second Semester 

VI. Thrift 6 weeksj 

Detailed Outline, 
property. 

Use the school lot or some nearby piece of land as a basis 
for real estate. Use anything available for personal prop- 
erty but USE IT. 



105 

Real Property. 

Ownership 

Title 
Deeds 
Mortgages 
Transfer 
Assignment 

"Registrar of Deeds" 
Wills 

Probate Court 
Boundary Lines 
Rights and Privileges 

Rent 

Leases 

Obligations of Landlord and Tenant 
Neighbors 

Rights and Obligations 
"Real Estate Agents" 

Personal Property. 
Buying and Selling 

Bills of Sale 
Contracts 

Profit and Loss 

"Notary Public" 

"Justice of the Peace" 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Specimen Deeds, Mortgages, Wills, Leases, Contracts. 
Any one of several Home Law Books, etc. 

Projects. 

1. Issue a deed to the Instructor or some member of 
class of a certain piece of land previously measured — school 
yard or other piece. 

2. Let the buyer mortgage it for a part of its value. 

3. Hold a Probate Court to consider the disposition of 
a will recently probated, etc. 



106 

Excursions. 

1. The plot of land. 

2. Lawyer's office. 

3. Office of "Registrar of Deeds" if accessible. • 

4. Probate Court if accessible. 

5. Office of real estate agent, etc. 

MONEY AND CREDIT. 

Use the School Savings Bank as a basis. 

Money. 

Coin and Coinage 
Bank Notes 
Legal Tender 

Credit 

Notes 

Checks 

Bonds (Liberty) 

War Savings Stamps 

Bankmg. 

Renting Money 
Loans 
Interest 
Bank Discount 

National Banks 
Clearing House 
Federal Reserve 

Savings Banks 

Trust Companies 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Types of Money, Checks, Liberty Bonds, etc. 

Project. 

1. Operate a School Bank as an essential feature of the 
commercial department, etc. 



107 



ExcursioTiS. 



1. Visit local banks and observe methods. 

2. Talk with bankers about personal qualities necessary 
in banking, etc. 



TAXATION. 

Use the financial operation of the local School Depart- 
ment as a basis. 

Local Taxation. 

Property Tax 

Poll Tax 

Issuing Notes and Bonds 

Siate and Federal Taxation. 

For ordinary purposes 
For war purposes 
Income Tax 

Indirect Taxation. 

Increased rentals 
Higher prices 

Expenditure of Public Money. 

By the town or city 

By the state 

By the -federal government 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Local Town and School Reports, Specimen Bonds and 
Notes, Specimen Tax Bills, Copy Income Tax Question- 
naire, Reports of State and Federal Financial Officers, etc. 

Projects. 

1. Determine and draft sources of revenue to run 
school department. Figure percentage from each source. 
Determine school tax rate. Compare with rate for other 
purposes. 



108 

2*. Form class into a City Council or School District. 
Issue notes or bonds or both for constructing new school 
building. Determine annual tax necessary for this pur- 
pose and amount each pupil would pay, each holding a 
different property valuation. 

3. Determine the distribution of local taxes for differ- 
ent departments of public administration, as police, health, 
etc., and show the gain to the indi\ddual from community 
services, etc. 

Excursio7is. 

1. City Council in session. 

2. Tax Collector's office, etc. 

INDUSTRY. 

Use Local Industries as a basis. 

The Employe7\ 

Liabilities and obligations 

Corporations 
Monopolies 

Capital 
Profits 

The Laborer 

Obligations 
Contracts 
Morale 

Organized Labor 

Strikes, Boycotts, Sabotage 

"Wages 

Business Corporations. 

Freight transportation 

Express transportation 

Post office service 

Telegraph and telephone service 

Gas and electric company service 



109 

Government Control. 

Interstate Commerce 
Transportation 

Socialism 

International Trade. 
Consular Service 
Exchange 
Eelations with Europe, South America, and the East 

Business Ethics. 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Grovernment Eeports, Books on Commercial Law, Recent 
Addresses, Documents of National City Bank, New York. 
Blanks used by transportation and other companies, etc. 

Projects. 

1. Form class into a Stock Company. Consider liabili- 
ties of employer to employed. 

2. Organize class into a Labor LTnion. 

3. Study transportation with local common utility of- 
fices, considering business methods, obligations and service 
rendered, etc. 

Excursions. 

1. Visit local industries and observe business methods. 

2. Talk with business men. 

3. Visit public service offices, etc. 

INSURANCE. 

Use Insurance on local School Property as a basis. 

Fire Insurance. 

The Policy 
Method of settlement in case of loss 

Rates in different sections of city 



110 



Life Insurance. 



The Policy 

Participating policies 
Non-participating policies 

Life and Term 

Premiums 

Dividends 

Methods of adjustment - 

Requirements to obtain 
Beneficiary 

Annuities 

Legal reserve companies 

Assessment companies 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Specimen Policies, Insurance Literature, Mortality Ta- 
bles, etc. 

Projects, 

1. Study typical policies. 

2. Discuss types of insurance as applied to different 
persons in different stations in life, etc. 

Excursions. 

1. Visit insurance agent's offices, etc. ^ 



THRIFT. 



Occupations. 



Income 

Expenditures 
Savings 
Investments 

Sound and unsound 
Laws that should govern 
Poverty 

Advancement 

Qualities necessary 



Ill 



Leisure. 

Self improvement 
Reading and study- 
Thinking ,? 

E-eereation 

Civic responsibilities 

The Family Budget. 
Division of income 
Form of accounts 

SUGGESTED. 

Beferences. 

Biographies of Successful Men and Women. Inspira- 
tional Books, as Conwell's and Harden 's. Daily personal 
and financial advertisements. Magazine financial articles. 
Family Expense Account — Bookman: D. C. Heath & Co., 
etc. 

Projects. 

1. Find current yearly income of main occupations in 
community. 

2. Determine preparation required. 

3. Determine percentage of work time and leisure de- 
voted by each member of the class. Discuss this. 

4. Family accounts kept for a year, etc. 

Excursions. 

1. Talk with successful men regarding their own busi- 
ness or profession. 

2. Visit local establishments and estimate opportunities 
for young men and women, etc. 

SUGGESTED TALKS. 

By Lawyers. 

Common Laws Every Citizen Should Know. 
Rights and Obligations of Neighbors. 
How to Buy and Sell Real Estate, etc., etc. 



112 

By Bankers. 

Sound and Unsound Investments. 
What a Trust Company Does. 
The Federal Reserve, etc., etc. 

By Business Men. 

The Kind of Help Business Men Want. 

Government Control of Railroads. 

Present Business Possibilities in South America, etc., etc. 

By Insurance Men. 

How Fire Loss is Adjusted. 

Why One Should Carry Life Insurance. 

Different Forms of Life Insurance Policies, etc., etc. 

Bibliography. 

Elements of Economics — Bullock: Silver, Burdett & Co. 

Elementary Economics — Ely and Wicker : The Macmil- 
lan Co. 

Elements of Business — Schock and Gross: American 
Book Co. 

Commercial Law — Rowe : R. 

Law for the American Farmer — Green: The Macmillan 
Co. 

Lessons in Community and National Life — Judd and 
Marshall. 

Laws of Business — Parsons. 

Masterpieces op Music and Art V. 

This is a year's course in acquaintanceship with and ap- 
preciation of the masterpieces of architecture, painting, 
sculpture and musical compositions. 

MUSIC. 

Aim. 

The course endeavors to cultivate intelligent listeners, 
who may for that reason enjoy a vastly greater range of 
compositions. The pupil should become familiar with the 



113 

style of different epochs so that a work should not be called 
classic because, as a young lady once remarked, it was 
"rather long, rather difficult and not pretty." The pupil 
should also become familiar with music terms generally, 
whether used as titles of compositions or to describe a 
movement and, last but not least, she should learn the 
proper pronunciation of titles, musical expressions and 
proper names. 

Standards. 

The study of fifty musical compositions carried at least 
to the point of recognition. 

Suggestions^. 

The theory of music should be studied, but at least sixty 
per cent, of the time given to the course should be devoted 
to musical expression and to listening to music, with notes 
and comments, historical, biographical or of interest other- 
wise, accompanying the selections played. 

It is suggested that each pupil keep for herself a record 
of all music played in the classroom, together with the 
notes and comments, and pictures appropriate to the sub- 
ject which may be obtained in a variety of ways: in ad- 
vertisements of music records; in music and other maga- 
zines; in the daily and Sunday papers; in the "Perry 
Pictures." Pupils should also be encouraged to read the 
current notes and comments on concerts, recitals, compos- 
ers and performers to be found in the foremost daily pa- 
pers. 

As more and more schools are coming to depend on 
music records for this work, which indeed would be im- 
possible without them, a list of suggested records is here 
offered for convenience, to be added to or varied by the 
teacher at his discretion. These records are given the 
Victor catalogue numbers but the same records and other 
desirable ones may be obtained from the Columbia and 
other phonographic companies. 



114 

The following list of books is suggested for reading and 
reference : 

What is Good Music ? W. J. Henderson 

Purity in Music, A. F. Thibaut 

The Great Tone-Poets (Bach to Schumann), F. J. Crowest 
A Concise History of Music, H. G. B. Hunt 

Music, How It Came to Be What It Is, Hannah Smith 
The Story of the Oratorio, Anna W. Patterson 

The Story of the Violin, Paul Stoeving 

Hymns and Their Writers, D. C. Campbell 

The Opera, Past and Present, W. G. Apthorp 

The Pianoforte and Its Music, H. E. Krehbiel 

Music Study in Germany, Amy Fay 

Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Sir George Grove 



SUGGESTED RECORDS. 

Folk Songs and Dances. 

Russian — 17001 Kamarinskaia. 

63153 Vanka. 

Kolebaluia. 
Hungarian — 17003 Czardas. 

Irish— 64259 The Harp that Once Thro' Tara's Halls. 
Welsh— 74100 All Through the Night. 
Scotch — 64210 Loch Lomond. 
English— 17190 The Lass with the Delicate Air. 

17086 Morris Dance. 
American Negro — 74246 Deep River. 

Early Church Music. 

61108 Offertorio e Communione. 

(Gregorian High Mass, Sistine Choir.) 

Early Counterpoint. 

35279 Sumer is- ecumen in. 

Oratorios. 

16980 Dead March C'Saul"). Handel 

85103 He Shall Feed His Flock ("Messiah") Handel 
31770 Hallelujah Chorus ("Messiah"). Handel 



115 



J. S. Bach, Height of Contrapuntal Period. 



81045 


Ave Maria. 




64132 


Gavotte in E Major. 




17184 


Bourree from Suite III. 




70047 


Air for G String. 




Classic Period. 




64135 


Minuet. 


Haydn 


17087 


Minuet. 


Mozart 


35576 


Chorus from Fidelio. 


Beethoven 


35268 


11 




35269 


II [-Leonora Overture No. 3. 
IIIJ 


Beethoven 


88013 


Who is Sylvia? 


Schuhert 


64093 


Serenade. 


Schuhert 



Romantic Period. 

31819 Overture — Midsummer Night's Dream. 

Mendelssohn 
31740 The Two Grenadiers. Schumann 



Dance Forms. 

17087 ' Minuet. 
64132 Gavotte. 
35669 Bourree. 
17083 Tarantella. 
17174 . Tarantella. 
64224 Mazurka. 
17003 Czardas. 



Mozart 
Bach 
Bach 

Saint-Saens 

Chopin 



Song Form,. 

' 35159 Spinning Song. • Mendelssohn 

64093 Serenade. Schubert 
87502 Barcarolle ("Tales of Hoffman"). Offenbach 

17181 Lullaby. Brahms 

Symphonies. 

35243) 

35244 ( Sjrmphony No. 3 ("Surprise"). Haydn 

35268) T- AT o « .7 

35269 f •L'^o^ora No. 3. Beethoven 



116 



Overtures. 



MeTidelssohn 

Tschaikowsky 

Mozart 

Smelana 



Schubert 

Saint-Saens 

Debussy 



31819 A Midsummer Night's Dream. 
31739 Overture 1812. 

Magic Flute. 
35148 Bartered Bride. 

Descriptive Compositions. 

64076 The Bee. 
64046 Le Cygne. 
35464 L'apres Midi. 

Furtlier Compositions. 

35007 Peer Gynt Suite. Grieg 

71042 Norwegian Wedding March. Orieg 

35122 Hungarian Rhapsody. Liszt 

35275 Largo ("The New World Symphony"). Dvorak 

These are but a few illustrative compositions selected 
from the great amount of material now available, and 
should be supplemented by selections from oratorios and 
operas. It is suggested that some one opera be chosen for 
detailed study. Attention is also called to Victor Records 
35236 and 35237. 

Bibliography. 

What We Hear in Music, Victor Talking Machine Co. 
The Lure of Music, Columbia Phonograph Co. 
Story of Musical Form, Lucas: Scribner Co. \ 

Standard History of Music, Cooke. 



ART. 



Aim. 



The purpose of this course is to develop an appreciation 
of the beautiful in the works of man. The course should 
develop the art attitude of mind towards all forms of 
human expression, and not restrict it merely to the lim- 
ited selections of art subjects treated in this course. It 
should be the constant aim of the instructor to regard the 
course as a means of developing an essential element in 



117 

human nature, the inherent love of the beautiful. This 
course does not presuppose a studio training or even an 
elementary course in art expression for either the in- 
structor or the pupil. Such training would, of course, be 
highly useful. This course does assume, however, the 
existence of the elemental liking for beautiful objects, and 
where this elemental liking seems to be lacking, it assumes 
that it can in a measure be awakened. In both cases this 
course assumes that a pupil can be led to experience the 
beautiful in some degree in the presence of that spiritual 
inheritance of the race expressed in architecture, sculp- 
ture, and painting. 

Standards. 

This course will require as a minimum of class work, 
one-half year (18 weeks) or ninety 45-minute periods. 

Each pupil should keep a notebook. Illustrations may 
be kept in the notebook or mounted on separate sheets of 
paper and kept in a portfolio. "Whatever form of recording 
is adopted should represent the pupil's own individual re- 
sponse to the course. This record should contain no less 
than one hundred mounted pictures, drawings or trac- 
ings, with accompanying explanatory matter neatly and 
orderly arranged. The record should contain an account 
of the topics studied, or Avorks of art studied in class, of 
visits to art museums and other places of art interest, of 
reports on outside reading, and of data of personal in- 
terest to the pupil suggested by the art course. Memory 
sketches — even though crude — of what pupils have seen 
will do much to develop the capacity of appreciation. 

Suggestions. 

Almost every small community possesses some material 
for the beginnings of such a course as is here planned. 
Though local buildings may not have great aesthetic 
value, elements suggesting earlier and purer forms of 



118 

architecture may be found in public buildings and private 
residences in almost every village. These elements should 
constitute the point of departure for the course. Inex- 
pensive pictures of buildings which cannot be visited in 
nearby or remote towns can, without much difficulty, be se- 
cured. So far as possible pupils ought to be encouraged 
to make sketches — even very crudely — and to take photo- 
graphs of selected local buildings. There is on the market 
a large assortment of inexpensive prints covering modern, 
medieval, and ancient art. Current magazines and the 
supplements of newspapers are profusely illustrated and 
offer a great variety of subjects. Postcards are frequently 
worth careful study. Excellent effects can be secured by 
the artistic mounting of inexpensive prints. 

The method of this course should secure first-hand re- 
actions from the pupil. Works of art, either in the 
original or in some form -of reproduction, should be pre- 
sented first, in order to secure for the pupil a direct im- 
pression. Reading about art is not sufficient and it may 
lessen the fundamental value of this course if permitted 
for each pupil. To make the course vital and to' secure for 
it an organic connection with the pupil's life, this course 
proposes to present, first of all, the local material — even if 
it is meagre — and gradually to introduce more remote 
material both in place and in time, until the great field of 
art, present and past, is surveyed. 

The course will first introduce the subject of American 
art, because it is nearer to us than any other art. What 
we find in it of outside influence will naturally lead to a 
study of those art influences. This search cannot be car- 
ried out in detail, but it can be made to show the pupil 
main streams of European art influences that have con- 
tributed to American art. To progress from effect to cause 
is a complicated process, but the instructor should not have 
great difficulty in keeping the main currents of art devel- 
opment through the ages. 

Having made the contact between the pupil and the 



\ 119 

work of art, and having kept the direction, the instructor 
should show the relation between art and life. Art should 
not be regarded as something extraneous to life and op- 
tional, but rather as the happiest and the most beautiful 
way in which life has in all ages expressed itself. The 
work of the course should be continually correlated with 
that in literature and history; it may be correlated, too, 
with music and other arts. 

Use literature about art after and not before the pupil 
has seen the work of art either in the original or in some 
form of reproduction. Occasionally this method may be 
reversed, but the value of the course will increase accord- 
ing to tl\e degree in which the pupil can himself appre- 
ciatively regard works of art. 

This course is planned to give some of the significant 
architecture, sculpture and painting of the present and 
past. The instructor will select from the following outline 
as much as he can use. It is desirable — without going into 
minute discussion — to show the organic unity underlying 
all forms of artistic expression. The- relations between the 
various forms of art selected can be shown in broad treat- 
ment. A simple presentation of fundamental art princi- 
ples, namely : fitness, harmony, balance, rhythm, will nat- 
urally introduce the course, but only by means of concrete 
examples. 

The outline which follows gives essential kinds and 
periods of notable art expression. The. proportion of time 
devoted to each main division may be considered elastic. 
No main topic or sub-topic should be omitted. Certain 
aspects of art and some important types of art have not 
been included in the outline which a longer course might 
include. Individual. members of the class may, however, 
report on these matters as they arise in class discussion. 
For example, it may be of interest to have a report on 
Japanese art when the class is considering the work of 
Whistler. 



120 

OUTLINE OF COURSES. 

I. Nineteenth Century and After 20 periods 

A. American: architecture— Iocs! buildings, schools, 

churches, municipal and government buildings, 
skyscrapers, railway terminals, etc. 

sculpture — works by George G. Barnard, Herbert 
Adams, Cyrus E. Dallin, Gutzon Borglum, Lorado 
Taft, Daniel C. French, Frederick W. MacMon- 
nies, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, etc. 

painting — Gari Melchers, Winslow Homer, Birge 
Harrison, James McNeill "Whistler, John H. 
Twachtman, Childe Hassam, J. Alden Weir, Ed- 
mund C. Tarbell, Elihu Vedder, John LaFarge, 
Edwin H. Blashfield, Edwin A. Abbey, John W. 
Alexander, Wilton Lockwood, Alexander Harri- 
son, John S. Sargent, Thomas Eakins, Ralph A. 
Blakelock, Homer D. Martin, Alexander H. 
Wyant, William M. Chase, Thomas W. Dewing, 
George Fuller, Abbot H. Thayer, George deForest 
Brush, George Inness, William M. Hunt, Emman- 
uel Leutze, J. G. Brown, Chester Harding, 
Thomas Moran, Albert Bierstadt, Asher B. Du- 
rand, Thomas Cole, Washington Allston, John 
Trumbull, Gilbert Stuart. 

B. French: architecture — city plan of Paris, public 

buildings, opera house, etc. 

sculpture — works of Rodin, Fremiet, Roty, Barye, 
Carpeaux, Rude. 

painting — Bastien-LePage, Monet, Dagnan-Bouveret, 
Rosa Bonheur, Cazin, Bonnat, Manet, Lhermitte, 
Puvis de Chavannes, Courbet, Millet, Corot, 
Meissonier, Delaroche, Carolus-Duran, Delacroix, 
Ingres, Gros, David, etc. 

C. British: architecture — Bank of England, British 

Museum, London University, St. George's Hall 
(Liverpool), Houses of Parliament, Nat. History 
Museum (South Kensington), etc. 

sculpture — works of Albert Gilbert, J. Gascombe 
John, Alfred Drury, E. Onslow Ford, Hamo 
Thornycroft, Alfred Stevens, Chantrey. 

painting — Albert Moore, Alma Tadema, W. Quiller 
Orchardson, J. E. Millais, Edward Burne-Jones, 
G. F. Watts, Edwin Landseer, J. M. W. Turner, 
etc. 



121 

II. EigMeenih Century 9 periods 

A. American : arcJiitecture — colonial or Georgian 

buildings. 
painting — C. W. Peale, J. Singleton Copley, Benja- 
min West, John Smybert. 

B. British: architecture — works of Adams (brothers). 

Sir William Chambers, James Gibbs, John Van- 
brugh. 

sculpture — J. Flaxman, John Bacon, J. NoUekens, 
Thomas Banks. 

painting — Thomas Lawrence, Raeburn, Hoppner, 
Allan Ramsay, Romney, Gainsborough, Rey- 
nolds, Hogarth. 

C. French : architecture — Neo-classic style, Place de 

la Concorde, Works of Gabriel, St. Sulpice 

(Paris), Pantheon. 
sculpture — Houdon, Pajou, Clodion, Falconet, Pi- 

galle, Coustou (brothers), Bouchardon. 
painU^ig— Madame Yigee-Lebrun, Hubert Robert, 

Joseph Vernet, Fragonard, Greuze, Chardin, 

Nattier, LaTour, Boucher. 

D. Italian: sculpture — Canova. 

painting — Batoni, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, etc. 

III. Seventeenth Century 9 periods 

A. British : architecture — The Sir Christopher Wren, 

Inigo Jones. 

B. French : architecture — The Louvre, Versailles, va- 

rious chateaus. 
sculpture — Coysevox, Puget, Girardon. 
painting — Lancret, Watteau, Largilliere, Rigaud, 

LeMoyne, Jouvenet, LeBrun, Claude Lorrain, 

Poussin, LeSueur. 

C. Italian: architecture — St. Peter's (Rome). 
sculpture — Bernini. 

painting — Domenichino, Carlo Dolci, Guido Reni, 
Salvator Rosa, Carracci, Caravaggio. 

D. Spanish: painting — Goya, Murillo, Velasquez, 

Zurbaran, Rib era. 



122 

E. Dutch: painting — Rembrandt, Paul Potter, Jacob 

Ruisdael, Hobbema, Jan Steen, Vermeer, Pieter 
de Hoocb, Dou, Franz Hals. 

F. Flemish : painting — David Teniers, Antoon van 

Dyek, Jordaens, Rubens. 

IV. Renaissance 9 periods 

A. Franco-Flemish : sculpture- — works of Goujon, Pi- 

Ion, Colombe. 
painting — Clouet, Fouquet, Ian Gossaert, Matsys, 
Froment, Gerard David, Memling, R. Van Der 
"Weyden, Ian van Eyck. 

B. Italian: arcJiitecture — Certoza (Pavia), Palazzo 

Vendramin (Venice), Ruccellai Palace (Flor- 
ence), Piecolomini Palace (Siena), Palazzo Stroz- 
zi (Florence), Palazzo Pitti (Florence), Capella 
Pazzi (Florence), Bargello (Florence), Santo 
Maria Novella (Florence), San Giorgio Maggiore 
(Venice), Campanile (Florence), Leaning Tower 
(Pisa). 

sculpture — works of the Delia Robbia, Donatello, 
Brunilleschi, Ghiberti, the Pisani, Verrochio, Cel- 
lini. 

painting — Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Paul 
Veronese, II Tintoretto, Correggio, Andrea del 
Sarto, Leonardo da Vinci, the Bellini, Mantegna, 
Pinturicchio, Perugino, Ghirlandajo, Botticelli, 
Fra Filippo Lippi, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Duc- 
cio, Giotto. 

C. German : painting — Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein 

(younger), Albert Durer. 

y. Gothic 6 periods 

A. French: architecture (ecclesiastical)- — S. Etienne 
du Mont (Paris), S. Michel (Dijon), Reims, 
Amiens, Beauvais, LeMans, Bourges, Chartres, 
Paris (Notre Dame), etc. 

architecture (civic) — Jacques Coeur's House 
(Bourges), Palais de Justice (Rouen), Hotel de 
Clugny (Paris), Hotel de Ville (Compiegne), 
ramparts of Carcassone. 

sculpture — ''The vintage capital" Cathedral 
(Reims), figures on portals Cathedral (Char- 
tres) . 



123 

B. English: architecture — Hampton Court, King's 

College Chapel (Cambridge), Henry VII 's Chapel 
(Westminster Abbey), York Minster, St. Giles 
(Wrexham), Canterbury Cathedral, Gloucester, 
Lichfield Cathedral (Choir), Chapter House 
(York Minster), Beverley Minster (Percy 
Shrine), Carlisle Cathedral (Choir), Wells Cathe- 
dral, Lincoln Cathedral, Peterborough Cathedral, 
Salisbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, Foun- 
tains Abbey (Cloister). 

C. Italian : architecture — Pisa, Milan, Orvieto cathe- 

drals. 

D. German: architecture — Strassburg, Cologne cathe- 

drals. 

VI. Romanesque 5 periods 

A. Italian: architecture — St. Ambrose (Milan), 

Cathedral at Modena, St. Michael (Pavia). 

B. French: architecture — Abbey for Men (Caen), 

Church of St. Giles, Notre Dame (Paris). 

C. English: architecture — Cathedrals at Durham, 

Ely, Canterbury. 

VII. Early Christian 3 periods 

A. Italian: architecture — St. Marks (Venice), San 

ApoUinare in Classe (Ravenna), San Vitale (Ra- 
venna) . 

B. Byzantine: architecture — St. Sophia (Constanti- 

nople). 

VIII. Roman • 7 periods 

Architecture — San Paolo fuori le mura (Rome), Ba- 
silica of Constantine (Rome), Baths of Caracalla 
(Rome), Tomb of Hadrian — Castle of St. An- 
gelo (Rome), Colosseum (Rome), Arch of Con- 
stantine (Rome), Arch of Titus (Rome), Pan- 
theon (Rome), "Maison Carree" (Nimes), 
Aqueducts of the Roman Campagna, Cloaca 
Maxima, Gateway at Volterra. 



124 

Scidphore — Bronze horses (St. Mark's — Venice), 
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (Rome), 
Julius Caesar in Toga, Young Augustus (Vati- 
can), Antinous (Vatican), Augustus of Prima 
Porta (Vatican), Otricoli Zeus (Vatican), Far- 
nese Hercules (Naples). 

Painting — Mosaics in churches of San Paolo fuori le 
mura, San Pudenziana, San ApoUinare Nuovo 
(Ravenna), frescoes in the Catacombs (Rome), 
Aldobrandini Wedding (Vatican), The Battle of 
Issus — mosaic (Pompeii). 

IX. Greek 10 periods 

Architecture — Choragic Monument of Ly si crates 
(Athens), Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (Asia Mi- 
nor), Temple of Nike Apteros (Athens), The 
Erectheum (Athens), The Propylaea (Athens), 
Parthenon (Athens), Temple of Theseus 
(Athens), Temple of Athene (Aegina), Temple 
of Poseidon (Paestum, Italy), Lions' Gate (My- 
cenae) . 

Sculpture — The Laocoon (Vatican), Farnese Bull 
(Naples), Dying Gaul (Capitoline Museum, 
Rome) Apollo Belvedere (Vatican), Aphrodite of 
Melos— "Venus de Milo" (Louvre), Nike of 
Samothrace (Louvre), Attic tomb reliefs — Dexi- 
leos, Hegeso, etc., Alexander sarcophagus (Con- 
stantinople), Demeter from Cnidus (British 
Museum), Apoxyomenos after Lysippus (Vati- 
can), Silenus and Infant Dionysus (Louvre), 
Marble Faun after Praxiteles (Capitoline Mu- 
seum, Rome), Artemis of Versailles (Louvre), 
Hermes and Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles (Mu- 
seum, Olympia), Nike by Paeonios, Varvakeion 
Athene (Athens), Balustrade of Temple of Nike 
Apteros, Caryatids of the Erectheum, Inner Frieze 
of Parthenon, Metopes of Parthenon, Pediment 
figures from the Parthenon (British Museum, 
London), Doryphorus after Polycleitus (Na- 
ples), Discobolus after Myron (Vatican), Pedi- 
ment groups from Temple of Athene, Aegina 
(Berlin). 



125 

Painting — Vases with painted designs in black on red 
and yellow grounds, frescoes from Tiryns, geo- 
metric designs, etc. 

X. Egyptian and Primitive 2 periods 

A. Egyptian: architecture — buildings at Luxor, Kar- 

nak; pyramids at Ghizeb. 

sculpture — Colossi of Rameses II (Luxor, etc.), The 
Scribe (Louvre), Statue of King Chefren 
(Cairo), Sheik-el-beled (Cairo), Great Sphinx. 

painting — -wall paintings from palaces, tombs. 

B. Primitive : remains in Mexico, Central America ; 

Stone Henge (England), menhirs (France), cave 
markings (Dordogne). 

Bibliography. 

The following bibliography is made up of books that are 
most likely to be found in small libraries containing art 
books. Each section of the preceding outline is given a 
number of references bearing directly upon its topics. 
Both sets of references are necessarily brief because there 
is a vast literature on the course. 

GENERAL WORKS. 

A. On the history of art. 

DeForest and Caffin's A short history of art (.The 
Prang Co.). 

Lethaby's Architecture — Home Univ. Library (H. 
Holt & Co.). 

Lubke's History of art, edited by R. Sturgis (Dodd, 
Mead & Co.). A standard work in two volumes. 

Reinach's Apollo (Scribner's Sons). The best short 
work; very compact and fully illustrated. 

B. On specific fields of art. 

Armstrong's Art in Great Britain and Ireland (Scrib- 
ner's). 



126 



Caffin's The story of Americam painting (Stokes). An 
excellent single volume fully illustrated. 

Caffin's American masters of sculpture (Doubleday, 
Page & Co.). 

Hourticq's Art in France (Seribner's). The best sin- 
gle volume in English. 

Isham's The history of American painting (Maemil- 
lan). The standard work. 

Tarbell's History of Greek art (Maemillan). 

C. On the appreciation of art. 

Brook's Architecture and the allied arts (Bobbs-Mer- 
rill). 

Caffin's Art for life's sake (The Prang Co.). A sug- 
gestive work which a teacher should read. 

Emery's How to enjoy pictures (The Prang Co.). 

Sturgis's The appreciation of architecture (Double- 
day, Page & Co.). 

Sturgis's The appreciation of pictures (Baker & Tay- 
lor Co.). 

Sturgis's The appreciation of sculpture (Doubleday, 
Page & Co.). 

D. On the technique and theory of art. 

Batchelder's The principles of design (Inland Printer 

Co). 

Dow's Composition (Baker & Taylor Co.). 

Poore's Pictorial composition and the critical jiidg- 
ment of pictures (Putnam's Sons). 

Ross's A theory of pure design (Houghton, Mifflin 
Co.). 

SECTION REFERENCES. 

Inglis, Alexander; Principles of secondary education 
(Houghton, Mifflin Co.). Ch. XVIII— especially Sect. 
281. 



127 

Sleight, "W. G. ; Educational values and methods (Oxford 
Press). Ch. IX — a most important educational work 
for the teacher. 

Judd, Charles H. ; PsycJiology of high school subjects 
(Ginn & Co.). Pp. 353-364, 367-369; see also pp. 
184f., 201 on the appreciation of literature. 

Sargent, Walter; High school education (Johnston) 
(Scribner's Sons). Ch. XVI; see bibliography p. 508. 

Sargent, Walter; articles in The School Review (Chicago), 
vol. XXIV. Pp. 107ff. Art courses in high schools, 
pp. 409ff. Course of study of art in the high school. 

2. Reproduction in picture form. 

The University Prints, Newton, Mass. (catalogue 5 
cents). 
One-cent size (8 x 5% inches) half tones. 

The Perry Pictures, Maiden, Mass. (catalogue 10 
cents) . 

Half-cent size (3 x 3^/2 inches). 
One-cent size (5% x 8 inches). 
Two-cent size (7x9) inches). 
Seven-cent size (10' x 12 inches). 

The Thompson Publishing Co., Syracuse, N. Y. (cata- 
logue 15 cents). 

One-cent size (4x5) blue-prints. 
Ten-cent size (8 x 10) blue-prints, and black and 

white prints (4 x 5). 
Twenty-five-cent size (8 x 10) black and white 

prints. 

Elson Art Publication Co., 2a Park St., Boston, Mass. 
(catalogue 5 cents). 
Carbon photogravures ranging in price, 5 cents 

. to $8.00 each. 
Carbon photographs ranging in price, $4.00 to 
$40.00 each. 

Curtis & Cameron, Boston, Mass. (catalogue 35 cents). 
Copley Prints ; high grade reproductions ; rich in 
works of American artists. 



128 

The Medici Society (American Branch Inc.), 12 Har- 
court St., Boston, Mass. (catalogue 25 cents). 
Color reproductions of very high grade; rich in 
old masters. 

Post Cards, Detroit Publishing Co., Detroit, Mich. 

Reproductions in casts. 

P. P. Caproni & Bros., 1914-1920 Washington St., 
Boston, Mass. 

3. Year-Book of the Council of Supervisors of the Manual 

Arts, 1907. 

Article by Walter Sargent, pp. 43f. The relation of 
public schools to museums of fine arts. See ac- 
companying illustrations by H. T. Bailey. 

4. Outlines for art study. 

General Federation of Women's Clubs, Mrs. C. E. 
Perkins (Chairman), 327 Washington St., Grand 
Rapids, Mich, (outlines 25 cents). 

American Federation of Arts, Leila Mechlin (Secre- 
tary), Washington, D. C. (outline study courses 
in American art; price 10 cents). 

American Art Annual (published by Amer. Federa- 
tion of Arts), filled with information on art ac- 
tivities in the United States. 



Greek and Roman Literature YI. 



Aim. 



It has long been felt that the Greek and Roman classics 
should not remain merely for the select few who have the 
courage and patience in this age of expedition to read 
them in the original only in intensive and limited form 
in the classroom; but that it might be possible to pursue 
in school a Greek and Latin course in English. This is now 
possible by reason of the large number of literary transla- 
tions in both prose and verse. English Literature, par- 
ticularly in poetry, is so saturated with the elements that 



129 

made the classics great, that a knowledge of the latter, 
presenting great literature, great art, great history, great 
civilization, is a matter of tantalizing concern today. Thus 
is offered a course in Greek and Roman Literature for 
non-classical students and, in particular, for those whose 
school work has specially fitted them to make the home a 
place of refinement and culture, where there should be 
pabulum for the mind as well as for the body. 

Standards. 

This course may be taught only by a teacher who is in- 
terested in literature and familiar with the classics. In 
many school staffs, it would be assigned to some teacher of 
Latin or of English. The course should not be given, if no 
teacher is competent for the work. 

This is not a new course, and agreed standards of ac- 
complishment may be reached only from the experience of 
the schoolroom. It is, however, to be a course in extensive 
reading and at least seventy-five per cent, of the amount 
covered in the following bibliography should be the work 
of the class. Appended to the bibliography of both lists 
of authors are books for collateral reading. These, in the 
main, are modern works in English based on classic themes 
or subjects. There will be ambitious students wishing to 
read extensively from these lists, so it is advised that a 
minimum of five titles be selected for reading from the 
combined collateral groups. 

Suggestions. 

It will readily be seen by even a casual survey of the 
bibliography below that this course calls for extensive and 
rapid reading. No time must be wasted in discussion 
of the minutiae of the selections. A general or skeleton pic- 
ture of a whole story, book, poem or play should be ob- 
tained by the student at one sitting, and this can be supple- 
mented by detail, resulting from a second or third reading, 



— 130 "~ ' 

for such points as style, diction, treatment of subject, 
mythology, appreciation, memorizing of famous passages or 
parts, study of civilization, classification, prosody, literary 
value, cultural value, literary influence, etc. 

The teacher will need to display a generous amount of en- 
thusiasm as she guides the class along through this course. 
"The teacher, as usual, will make the course a success or a 
"disappointment, depending on the interest she arouses and 
maintains. Famous passages should be read in part aloud in 
class, both student and teacher engaging. This can best 
be done in the drama, of course. The greatness of some 
passages is first made clear to the young learner only 
through the teacher's oral reading. 

The teacher should constantly keep in view the need of 
developing in the class, by the books assigned, an appre- 
ciation of the tremendous significance of the Greek and 
Roman civilizations, the greatness of these in various de- 
partments, such as government, literature and art, and 
their legacies to the modern world. 

There are only a few annotated editions available, so a 
double duty devolves upon the teacher to emphasize or 
develop the salient points of the text, and make clear the 
mythological references and pronunciation of proper 
names. Indeed, constant use should be made of, and ref- 
erence to, some good compendium of mythology, for the 
purposes of this course the best being Gayley's "Classic 
Myths in English Literature" (Ginn). Its stories of the 
common pagan deities of classic literature should be com- 
mon knowledge. 

It will be left to the teacher's good juagment to make 
selections suitable in character and extent where "Selec- 
tions" are specified in the "Bibliography." 

The suggestion is made that a minimum of formal 
examinations be held in this course; the progress of the 
student will best be tested by his daily class work, where 
he should be held strictly accountable. 



131 

GREEK AUTHORS. 



BibUography. 



Homer, Iliad, Bryant's translation (verse), Bks. I, 
VI, XXII, XXIV; (Riverside Literature Series), 

10 penods. 
Or 

Homer, Iliad, Pope's translation (verse), Bks. I, 
VI, XXII, XXIV; (Riverside Literature Series), 

10 periods. 

Homer, Odyssey, Palmer's translation (prose) ; 

(Riverside Literature Series), 10 periods. 

Homer, Ulysses among the Phseacians, Bryant's 

translation; (Riverside Literature Series), 1 period. 

Xenophon, Memorabilia, or Anabasis; Everyman 
Edition, 10 periods. 

Thucydides, Peloponnesiau War, Bk. II, "The 
Plague;" Everyman Edition, 2 periods. 

Herodotus, Vol. I, Selections, 50 pages; Everyman 
Edition, 2 periods. 

Plato, Apology, Crito and Phaedo; Golden Treas- 
ury Series, <S joeriods. 

Plutarch, Lives of Cicero and Pericles, Everyman 
Edition; or Lives of Caesar, Brutus and Antony; 
Pocket Classics, 5 periods. 

Aeschylus, Agamemnon, and Persians, or Eumen- 
ides (verse) ; Everyman Edition, 15 periods. 

Euripides, Aleestis and Medea (verse) ; Everyman 
Edition, • 20 periods. 

Sophocles, Antigone and Oedipus Tyrannus (verse), 
Everyman Edition, or same (prose) in Jebb's 
translation, 20 periods. 

Aristophanes, Acharnians, or Birds ; Everyman Edi- 
tion, 3 periods. 

As a substitute for Herodotus and Thucydides above, 
readings from "Greek Poets in English Verse" by 



132 

various translators). Houghton, Mifflin Company, may be 
used for selections in authors not included in the above 

list.) 

Collateral Reading. 

Ulysses, Stephen Phillips. 

Ulysses, Tennyson. 

The Fire-Bringer, Wm. Vaughn Moody. 

The Ancient Classic Drama, Eichard Moulton. 

The Cyclops, Shelley. 

On the Crown, Demosthenes. 

Odes, Pindar (Myers' translation). 

Fables, Aesop. 

Artemis Prologizes, Browning. 

Ode to Psyche, Keats. 

Chapman's Homer, Keats. 

Pheidippides, Browning. 

Prometheus Unbound, Shelley. 

LATIN AUTHORS. 

Terence, Phormio, Morgan's translation; Harvard 
University Press, 5 periods. 

And 

Plautus, Menaechmi, Nixon 's translation ; Putnam 's, 

3 periods. 
Or 

Terence, Phormio, and Plautus, Captives; both in 
blank verse in "The Chief European Dramatists" 
by Brander Matthews, 8 periods. 

Livy, History of Rome, Bks. I, II, Selections, 75 
pages ; Everyman Edition, 3 periods. 

Caesar, Commentaries, Bks. I, III, IV, V; Every- 
man Edition, 5 periods. 

Vergil. Aeneid, Bks. I-VI, and selections from Bks. 
VI-XII, Conington (prose) ; Pocket Classics, 

20 periods. 
Or 

Vergil, Aeneid, Bks. I-VI, and selections from Bks. 
VI-XII, Conington (verse) ; Longman's, 20 periods. 



133 

CicerO; On Friendship ; On Old Age ; Selected Let- 
ters; On Duties; Everyman Edition; Archias, 
Hinds and Noble, 10 periods. 

Tacitus, Germania; Agricola; Everyman Edition, 

3 periods. 

Horace, Odes and Epodes (prose). Selections; 
Loeb's Classical Library. 10 periods. 

Catullus 

Ovid Selections (verse) from Dole's volume by 

Juvenal |-various translators; Astor Edition, 

Lucretius 10 periods. 

Martial J 

M. Aurelius, Meditations (Selections, 50 pages) ; 
Everyman Edition, 3 periods. 

Collateral Beading. 

Cicero, Orations vs. Catiline, Bohn Standard Library. 

Caesar, Civil War. 

Pliny's Letters. 

Hippomenes and Atalanta, Landor. 

Lays of Ancient Rome, Macauley. 

Atalanta 's Race, Morris. 

Ovid, Bk. I, Dryden. 

Vergil's Eclogues, Dryden. 

Horace, Satires. 

Classic Myths in English Literature, Gayley. 

Song of Proserpine, Shelley. 

On a Grecian Urn, Keats. 

The Love of Alcestis, Morris. 

Pan in Wall Street, Stedman. 

Lotus Eaters, Tennyson. 

Classic Myths in English Literature, Gayley. 



134 

CHAPTER IV. 

Physical Sciences. 
elementary science i and ii. 

Aim, 

Elementary science, as here conceived, has a place of its 
own between the nature study in the lower grades and the 
formal science of the later years in the secondary school. 

The nature study period is, in the main, one of sensory 
experience of natural objects and processes, involving also 
simple control of the phenomena on the part of the pupil. 

The stage of elementary science is one in which the pupil 
enters upon an elementary investigation of the processes of 
the world of nature about him as revealed in the manifold 
application of discovery and invention which have become 
the common environment of all who live u^der the condi- 
tions of modern civilization. This stage may be thought 
of as the popular science stage. It belongs particularly 
to the period of early adolescence, in which the individual 
is in a period of unusual hospitality to new ideas of a 
higher order than has previously been the case, but when 
he is still reluctant and probably unable to comprehend 
the abstractions involved in scientific generalizations. 

Standards'. 

1. The program calls for two half-courses in which are 
interpreted such phenomena of nature as are within the 
experience of children. 

2. The course cannot be satisfactorily taught if a single 
textbook on the subject is put in the hands of the pupils 
for a series of assignments and recitations. 

3. The course should include the several branches of 
physical science as physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteor- 
ology and biology. 



135 . .-, 

Suggestions. 

The outline given on pages 168 to 198 of the elementary- 
program should be the basis of the work, but the room 
should be supplied with textbooks in elementary science 
and on the several sciences, with the magazines of science 
and with the simple apparatus needed. 

Bibliography. 

Chapter XVI, Elementary Science, Program of Studies 
for the Elementary Schools of New Hampshire. 

Textbooks of the type of the Hodgdon Elementary Sci- 
ence, published by Hines, Hayden and Eldredge. 

PHYSICS IV. 

Aim. 

During the last decade probably no subject in the cur- 
riculum has enlarged and changed its viewpoint more than 
science and, especially, physics. Therefore, it seems nec- 
essary to state briefly these important changes and to in- 
dicate clearly the present accepted principles of science 
as far as they apply to the recitation and the laboratory 
experiment. 

First, the formal or didactic method of instruction is 
abolished. This means that recitations merely to show the 
teacher how much of a textbook the pupil has learned, or 
to give the teacher opportunity merely to explain what is 
not understood, or to aid in solving a large number of 
unfamiliar textbook problems, or to describe numerous 
unfamiliar applications of principles are not considered 
sufficiently valuable to justify the attempt to teach science. 
The recitation to he worth while must be so ordered that it 
will impart to the pupils some insight into the m,eaning and 
value of science, infect them with the true scientific spirit, 
and train them to methods of thinking and investigation 
common to all sciences. 



136 

Secondly, it means that far too many experiments are 
performed merely "to illustrate this principle," "to ver- 
ify that law," "to determine the value of that constant," 
or "to measure something" for the mere sake of acquiring 
technical skill by formal practice. The deadening^ effect 
of merely "going through" a set of formal experiments 
unrelated to any work in the classroom or to any vital 
interest of the pupil is appalling. This has been the cause 
of failure with the use of many manuals such as the Har- 
vard Experiments, the so-called "National Physics 
Course" and others of a similar purely formal character. 
All such laboratory work, aimed as it is, consciously or 
unconsciously merely to impart information or formal disci- 
pline, tends to inhibit thought and investigation rather 
than to incite it and can no longer be tolerated. 

The true spirit of science grows out of the desire to know 
truth that may have ajiseful outcome and apply it to get 
results that are felt to he worth while and hence this spirit 
can te caught hy children only when they investigate, learn 
and apply in order to get results that appeal to them per- 
sonally as worthy of their efforts. 

The scientific method is essentially a method of solving 
problems that present some appeal to the mind. Therefore, 
the true way to induct beginners into its use is to confront 
them with such problems and guide them in using scientific 
methods in reaching their solution. These problems 
through which one expects to teach the facts, ideas, laws, 
concepts and principles of science must be found among 
those that lie near the interests and experiences of the pu- 
pils and can be led up to in such an interesting way that 
they will appropriate them as their own. 

Standards. 

1. The unit in physics consists of at least one hundred 
and eighty .periods of forty minutes each (equal to 120 
hours) of assigned work. Two periods of laboratory work 
count as one of assigned work. 



137 

2. The work consists of three closely related parts; 
namely, class work, lecture-demonstration woi-k and labo- 
ratory work. 

3. It is very essential that double periods be arranged 
for laboratory work. 

4. The class work includes the study of at least one 
standard text. 

5. In the laboratory the pupil shall perform at least 
forty individual experiments or thirty projects (see defi- 
nition of experiment and project under Chemistry), and 
shall keep a careful notebook record of them. At least 
twenty of these will involve numerical work and the de- 
termination of such quantitative relations as may be ex- 
pressed in whole numbers and should not differ widely 
from the list of starred topics in the syllabus. 

Suggestions. 

1. Syllabus of Topics. *1 — Weight, center of gravity. 
*2 — Density. *3 — Parallelogram of forces. *4 — Atmos- 
phere pressure; barometer. *5 — Boyle's law. *6 — Pres- 
sure due to gravity of liquids with a free surface ; varying 
depth, density and shape of vessel. *7 — Buoyancy; 
Archimedes' principle. *8 — Pascal's law; hydraulic press. 
9 — ^Work as force times distance and its measurement in 
foot-pounds and gram-centimeters. 10 — Energy measured 
by work. *11 — Laws of machines ; work obtained not 
greater than work put in, efficiency. *12 — Inclined plane. 
*13 — ^Wheel and axle, pulleys. *14 — Measurement of mo- 
ments by the product of force times arm; levers. 15 — 
Thermometers ; Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales. 16 — 
Heat quantity and its measurement in gram-calories. *17 — 
Specific heat. *18 — Evaporation ; heat of vaporization of 
water. *19 — Dew point ; clouds and rains. *20 — Fusion 
and solidification; heat of fusion. 21 — Heat transference 
by conduction and connection. 22 — Heat transference by 
radiation. 23 — Qualitative description of the transfer of 



138 

energy by waves. 24 — ^Wave length and period of waves. 
25 — ^Sound originates at a vibrating body and is transmitr 
ted by waves in the air. *26 — Pitch and period of sound. 
*27 — Relation between the wave length of a tone and the 
length of a string, or organ pipe. *28 — Resonance. 29 — 
Beats. 30 — Rectilinear propagation of light; pin-hole 
camera. *31 — Reflection an.d its laws; images in plane 
mirror. *32 — Refraction and its use in lenses; the eye, the 
camera. *38 — Prisms and dispersion. 34 — Velocity of 
light. 35 — Magnetic attractions and repulsions. *36 — 
Field of force about a magnet. 37 — The earth as a mag- 
net; compass. 38 — Electricity by friction. 39 — Con- 
ductors and insulators. *40^ — Simple voltaic cell. *41 — Elec- 
trolysis; definition of ampere. *42 — Heating effects; re- 
sistance, definition of the ohm. *43 — Ohm's law; 
definition of the volt. *44 — Magnetic field about a current ; 
electromagnets. *45— Electromagnetic induction. *46 — 
Simple alternating current dynamo of one loop. *47 — 
Electromagnetic induction by breaking the circuit ; pri- 
mary and secondary. *48 — Conservation of energy. 

Note. This syllabus is not intended to include all the 
materials for the year's M^ork. It is purposely made short 
so that each teacher may be free to supplement it in a way 
that fits his individual environment. It does, however, in- 
clude all the topics which have by common consent been 
agreed upon as essential to a first course in physics. 

2. Form of Notes. The notes made by the pupil on his 
experiment should contain (a) a full and clear but con- 
cise statement of the problem that is to be solved or the 
question that is to be answered by the experiment; (b) a 
brief description of the apparatus and materials used; 
(c) an explanation of the method of procedure; (d) a 
clearly tabulated statement of all numerical data and re- 
sults; (e) all calculations that were used in obtaining the 
results; (f) the conclusions that were reached; (g) a brief 



139 

discussion of such sources of error as are profitable for the 
pupil to consider; (h) the solution of some numerical prob- 
lem based on the experiment performed. 

Note. Much time is often wasted in the useless embel- 
lishment of notebooks. Pupils should never be allowed to 
copy drawings from books. All drawings should be made 
from the objects themselves that are to be represented; 
and they should show clearly the particular features that 
are significant in the problem. Occasionally a negative 
may be made of apparatus difficult to draw and the pupil 
be encouraged to make a blue print for his notebook. All 
notes that belong directly to the laboratory should be nmde 
in the laboratory ai; the time when the work is done and the 
sheets on which they are made should not he taken from 
the laboratory until they have been inspected, checked and 
released by the teacher. 

3. Equipment. It must be understood that science is 
essentially laboratory work and every school must be 
equipped with a laboratory and apparatus suitable for per- 
forming the experiments arising in the study of the sylla- 
bus. A minimum equipment list may be obtained from the 
state department. 

The school laboratory should also contain cases and dis- 
play racks for charts, maps, pictures and lantern slides. 
Also bookcases for science library, catalogues, illustrations, 
scientific papers and magazines. Models and sets of appar- 
atus prepared for special experiments. A good projection 
lantern or porte-lumiere. 

4. Making of Apparatus. The making of apparatus by 
the pupils should be encouraged and the best pieces used 
in class work. Among those most useful and easily made 
are the following: 

Plumb bobs and pendulums, inclined planes, levers, 
weights for levers, model of a traveling crane, equilibrium 
of liquid tubes, model water wheels, model turbine, air 



140 

thermometer, metal thermometer, lift and force pumps, 
demonstration barometer tubes, Boyle's law tubes, convec- 
tion apparatus, model of hot-water heating plant, distilla- 
tion apparatus, suspended coils and ampere frame, helices 
mounted on boards, sounders and keys, resistance coils, pri- 
mary and secondary coil, Wheatstone bridges, solutions, 
Leyden jars, discharger, electrophorous, voltaic cells, elec- 
trolysis apparatus, electroscopes, sonometers, photometers, 
optical benches, mirrors, rectangular blocks, camera, hy- 
draulic press, dynamo and countless others, especially in 
electricity. 

5. The Recitatio7i. There should always be definitely in 
mind: 

1. The General Topic (e. g. Heat). 2. The Sub-topic 
(e. g. Distribution of heat by convection). 3. The Lesson 
unit (e. g. Uses and control of heat in the house). 4. The 
Lesson Problem (e. g. How to start a fire without getting 
smoke into the house). 

At the assignment of the lesson, the teacher will find out 
how much the class already knows about the subject, will 
ask questions that suggest problems, will request apparatus 
to be examined, will call for the collection of illustrated 
material obtained from local sources or catalogues, will for- 
bid the study of any text or premature theories, will set 
everyone asking questions at home and on the street to 
discover facts, will require that orderly notes be made of 
all facts learned or investigated, will call for personal ex- 
periences gained through any of the senses that may bear 
on the subject, and will require each pupil to write and 
hand in on the morrow a neatly written summary in good 
English of all that has been learned, together with ques- 
tions upon topics not clearly understood. 

During the lesson conference, the subject matter is or- 
ganized by the pupils under the direction of the teacher 
and the lesson problem clearly outlined. Here the aim 
is to get at the foundation of things and to complete the 



141 

chain of efficient causes link by link as far as the pupils 
are able to go by their own observation and reasoning. 

Next different hypotheses to explain the facts observed 
are advanced and tested by simple experiments. Here 
conies in the true function of the laboratory experiment. 

Then comes the conclusion, the generalization and the 
application. The conclusion Avill usually consist of a writ- 
ten series of statements of facts and phenomena observed, 
discovered, investigated or verified. The final generaliza- 
tion is a concise written statement in good English of the 
essential and characteristic principles involved in the prob- 
lem investigated. Each pupil should prepare one and read 
to the class. The best may occasionally be decided by vote. 
Under application, associated or related phenomena are 
studied and a far-reaching general principle established 
which is more likely to be remembered and recalled when 
wanted for the solution of similar problems than it would 
be if only perfunctorily memorized. 

Lastly the topical review outline is placed on the board, 
each pupil supplying one or more topics and giving details 
without reference to books or notes. 

6. Laboratory Experiments. No laboratory experiment 
should ever be performed unless it is to find out at first 
hand, by special appropriate observation and experiments, 
certain essential facts of observation which are needed in 
the methodical investigation of a certain scientific problem 
and which can not be found out as conveniently or effec- 
tively in any other way. It makes all the difference in the 
world whether the pupil observes, experiments, measures, 
examines apparatus or machine and specimens, tabulates 
measurements and solves problems merely "to do stunts," 
' ' to perform experiments, " " verify laws, ' ' or even ' ' to get 
a concrete basis for appreciating the principles set forth 
in the text," or whether he is experimenting to find an 
answer to some problem in which he is tremendously inter- 
ested. Thousands of notebooks of the former class clutter 



142 

the closets of science laboratories, as the pupils, after a 
year's hard labor, do not care enough about them to take 
them home. 

It should continually be borne in mind that the finding, 
for example, of the specific gravity of any substance, the 
determining of the coefficient of friction of expansion, the 
verifying of Ohm's law or any other similar experiment 
has absolutely no pedagogical value unless it is done to 
answer some vital question of worth-while importance in 
which the pupil is intensely interested. 

If no large commercial, industrial or civic problem is 
possible, the pupil is always interested in determining the 
efficiency of the particular piece of apparatus which he is 
using. For example, a pupil feels no great mental stimulus 
in merely verifying the law of the inclined plane or pulley, 
but he may become highly interested to discover how far 
this particular inclined plane or pulley complies with the 
theoretical law, to discover and compute its loss; that is, to 
decide upon its efficiency and to compare the efficiency of 
the two machines in doing the same work. 

Under this sort of teaching, the laboratory experiment 
instead of being abstracted, formal and meaningless to the 
pupil becomes a necessary step in the answering a real live 
human problem that the pupil has some actual reason for 
determining, that is, it becomes a project. Many such lab- 
oratory experiments can be found in the problems aroused 
in observing the household or industrial machines which 
are in common use, such as fireless cookers, electric flat- 
irons, sewing machines, electric and mechanical vacuum 
cleaners, lathes, drills, electric fans, scissors, can openers, 
fruit presses, thermometers, stoves, furnaces, gas, water 
and electric meters, ice cream freezers, thermos bottles, 
household and school plumbing, heating and ventilation, 
refrigeration, stills, automobiles, gas engines, annunciators, 
electric gas lighters, bells, fuses, lights, automatic sprink- 
lers, electroplating, electrolysis, civic water supply and 
pressure, municipal projects and hundreds of other big, 



143 

Tital, live subjects. The practical pedagogical test for all 
■experiments is this : Does it interest the pupil in some prin- 
ciple of physics and increase his ability to apply it in other 
cases f 

7. List of Lahoratory Experiments. For the above rea- 
sons no formal set of laboratory experiments will be issued, 
but forty of the type outline will be required. Packard's 
Laboratory Manual, Every Day Physics, Twiss' Labora- 
tory Exercises in Physics and the Experiments adopted by 
the Northwestern Association of Science Teachers are good 
examples of live, practical experiments along the latest 
■scientific lines. 

8. Aids to Interest in Physics. The Weston Electrical 
Instrument Company of Newark, New Jersey, publish sev- 
eral monographs of great value to teachers. These may be 
obtained free. The National Joint Committee on the Im- 
provement of Physics Teaching has numerous blue prints, 
description of new apparatus and devices which may be 
obtained from the Chairman, Professor J. A. Randall, 
Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. The large science 
apparatus houses issue catalogues which are instructive 
and helpful and should be on file in every science library. 
Hopkins' Experimental Science, published by Munn & 
Company, editors of the Scientifi^c American, is an almost 
indispensable book to every school as are also numerous 
other publications of the same company. Biographies or 
well-selected biographical sketches of the lives of the great 
scientists should be easily available. Among the most in- 
teresting are Galileo, Copernicus, Newton, Watt, Boyle, 
Oalvani, Volta, Franklin Faraday, Tyndall, Rowland, Hill, 
Edison, Marconi, and the Wright Brothers. Selections 
from the works of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, Fleming, 
Lodge, Dewar, Michelson and others are not only absorb- 
ingly interesting from the standpoint of science, but, also 
are choice models of English exposition. The Scientific 



144 

American and the Scientific American Supplement are ex- 
tremely valuable, as are also The Popular Science Monthly, 
Popular Mechanics and the Electrical Experimenter. 

A live science club adds much to the interest of the 
school and affords an excellent opportunity to make new 
apparatus, do commercial testing and special scientific in- 
vestigation. 

Bibliography. 

For professional reading by the teacher, nothing is bet- 
ter than "Science Teaching" by G. R. Twiss, published in 
1917 by the Macmillan Company. "The Teachings of 
Physics" by C. R. Mann, published by the Macmillan Com- 
pany, is also excellent, as is " The Symposium on the Pur- 
pose and Organization of Physics Teaching in the Second- 
ary Schools," published by the editors of School Science 
and Mathematics, 2059 E. 72d Place, Chicago. Government 
Bulletin, No. 47, entitled, "Teaching Material in Govern- 
ment Publications," is excellent and can be obtained free 
from the Commissioner of Education, "Washington, D. C. 

CHEMISTEY V. 

Aim. 

See Physics IV. 

Standards. 

1. The study of a standard text with at least 150 pages 
of supplementary reading. 

2. Not fewer than 60 experiments worked out in the 
laboratory by each pupil and properly recorded in a suit- 
able notebook, or, 

3. Not fewer than 30 projects, or, 

4. Any combination of 2 and 3 the numerical value of 
which equals 60. Each project may be equivalent to two 
experiments. 



145 

5. Not fewer than 200 problems in chemical arithmetic, 
including computations accompanying the laboratory 
work. It is desirable that problems be recorded in a note- 
book and be held ready for inspection at any time. 

Suggestions. 

1. Definitions. 

Experime^it. A procedure according to an outline the 
aim of which is not directly related to the environment of 
the pupil and usually has as a goal an illustration of some 
scientific principle without any particular application. 

Project. An extended experiment motivated. Every 
experiment may be made a project by extension and appli- 
cation. For illustration, the chemistry of soap making, 
preparation of alcohol by fermentation, preparation of 
ether and others, with slight modification, are well adapted 
for project work. A list of recommended projects is given 
in Circular No. 92. 

2. Notebooks. See under Physics IV. 

3. Required Equipment. Every laboratory should be 
provided with water, with gas, if possible, and, if not, a 
gasoline blast lamp and sufficient alcohol lamps ; a table for 
every two pupils and at least one good, well- ventilated hood. 
Tables should contain lockers and racks for bottles and ap- 
paratus when in use. 

Tables can be built by manual training class or by any 
carpenter, at low cost, suitable for all the work necessary in 
physics or chemistry. Iron sinks, arranged tandem, with 
tables on each side, closets beneath, and shelves on racks 
above, admirably answer the purpose. In this way one sink 
may serve for four pupils. 

There must be a sufficient quantity of chemicals and ap- 
paratus in the laboratory to meet the demands of the 
selected work. 

10 



146 

4. Recommendations. It is recommended that through- 
out the course especial attention be paid to the common 
illustrations of chemical phenomena and their industrial, 
physiological and hygienic applications ; that visits be 
made to chemical works, dye shops, gas plants and the like 
where possible; that periodicals devoted to the subject be 
regularly taken for class use; that special reference books 
and various texts, manuals, catalogues, etc., be kept con- 
stantly and easily accessible to the pupils; and that the 
laboratory be made attractive and workable. 

Many communities furnish opportunities for observing 
well developed chemical operations, such as special water- 
filtering plants, manufacture of paper, tanning of hides, 
dyeing of cloth. Whenever possible, a survey of these oper- 
ations should be carried out by certain pupils interested 
in some particular line of work. Such a survey might re- 
quire the equivalent time of a week's work in the labora- 
tory. A record of this investigation should be comprehen- 
sively written and presented for approval immediately 
after the work has been completed. 

5. Laboratory Work. The chief aim in a preparatory 
course in chemistry is to furnish first-hand information 
about well-known materials, their manufacture, properties 
and use. Therefore, no attempt should be made to gain a 
comprehensive knowledge of the facts of the science, nor 
in any way to encroach upon the province of collegiate in- 
struction, but rather to appeal to the experiment instead 
of the text for answers to questions and to stimulate the 
reasoning powers of the pupil by constant questioning, 
supervision and correction. This- will aid in training the 
pupil to observe accurately and draw correct conclusions 
from his observations. 

6. Lecture Table Demonstration. The preliminary lec- 
ture work may weU be confined to those experiments which 



147 

are to be done in the laboratory, giving a general descrip- 
tion of the method to be used, the object to be attained 
and the precautions which must be observed to insure 
safety and obtain good results. The later lectures and 
demonstrations can be used appropriately in amplifying 
the work done in the laboratory by parallel but different 
experiments ; in explaining more in detail the principles in- 
volved after the class has thought out the main points in 
regard to them; and in doing any of the experiments for 
which there is not sufficient time in the laboratory. Sub- 
ject matter for demonstration may be found in almost any 
advanced chemistry, but care should always be taken to 
select that which illustrates and teaches rather than that 
which only amuses and delights. 

List of Chemistry Experiments. 
No. experiment. 

1. Physical properties of iodine. 
Physical properties of sugar. 

Note action on heating and degree of solubility in 
water. 

2. Effect on (a) iron and (b) magnesium when heatecj 

in air. 

3. Preparation and properties of oxygen. (Two meth- 

ods.) 
Study of by-products in both cases. 

4. Weight of a litre of oxygen. (Standard pressure and 

temperature. ) 

5. Determination of the per cent, of oxygen in the at- 

mosphere. 

6. Preparation and properties of hydrogen gas. (Two 

methods.) 
Study of by-products in both cases. 

7. Electrolysis of water. 

8. General study of acids, bases, and salts. 

9. Study of the common indicators. 

10. Neutralization by titration method. 

11. Hydrolysis. Solutions of salts that are not neutral. 

Water as a real chemical compound. 



148 

12. *Study of solutions, suspensions, precipitates. 

13. Eelation between temperature and solubility. Note 

also rate of solubility. Some salts are very solu- 
ble but dissolve slowly. 

14. Relation of the properties of a substance to its water 

of crystallization. What commercial signifi- 
cance ? 

15. Efflorescence. 

16. Deliquesence. 

17. Preparation and properties of chlorin gas. 
Chlorin water. 

18. Preparation and properties of hydrochloric acid gas 

and liquid. 

19. Preparation and study of two chlorides. Test for a 

chloride. 

20. Preparation of two bromides. Test for a bromide. 

21. Preparation of two iodides. Test for an iodide. 

22. Comparative study of the chemism of chlorin, bro- 

min, and iodin by displacement. 

23. Preparation and properties of hydrofluoric acid. 
Study of the physical properties of sulphur. 

24. Note properties on heating in a test tube. 

What is the usual relation between viscosity and 
temperature ? 

25. Preparation of a crystalline and an amorphorous 

form of sulphur. 

26. Preparation and properties of hydrogen sulphide. 

27. Direct formation of two metallic sulphides. 

28. Preparation of a sulphite and a corresponding sul- 

phate. 

29. Preparation of two nitrates. (Two methods.) 

30. Test for a nitrate. Test for a nitrite. 

31. Preparation and study of an oxide of nitrogen pro- 

duced by decomposing ammonium nitrate. 

32. Preparation and properties of nitric oxide. Behavior 

with oxygen. (Air.) 

33. Preparations and properties of nitric acid. 

34. Preparation and properties of ammonia gas and so- 

lution. 



* Many pupils fail to recognize, with certainty, precipitates and 
true solutions. Correct methods should be insisted on and the stu- 
dent led to understand the importance of this recognition. 



149 

35. Reaction between an ammonium compound and a 

base (a) in a slightly moist, (b) complete solu- 
tion. 

36. Per cent, of nitrogen in the air. 

37. Study of carbon. Physical and chemical properties. 

Modifications. 

38. Detection of carbon dioxide in the air. Physical 

properties of the gas. 

39. Solubility of carbonates in the presence of carbon 

dioxide. 

40. Effect of heat on suspension of carbonates in partial 

solution. 

41. Study of at least two types of fire extinguishers. 

42. Study of baking powders. 

43. Preparation of carbon dioxide. Acid-carbonate 

method. 

44. Preparation and properties of carbon monoxide. 

45. Study of temporary and permanent hard waters. 

46. Action of aluminum salts on water containing solu- 

ble salts of lime. 

47. Equivalent of silver to hydrogen. 

48. Equivalent of aluminum. 

49. Study of the general behavior of electrolytes and non- 

electrolytes in solution. Supplemented by lec- 
ture experiments and class discussions. 

50. Ionization and migration as shown by the study of 

some electro-plating process. 

51. ' Flame tests for sodium, potassium, strontium, cal- 

cium, and barium compounds. 

52. Action of metals on certain salt solutions. Displace- 

ment. 

53. Identification of a few metals by borax bead test. 

54. Identification of metals by use of blow pipe. Oxida- 

tion and reduction. 

55. Oxidize iron to the higher state and test for the 

presence of "OUS" and "IC." 

56. Reduce a solution of iron v/ith hydrogen gas to a no- 

ticeable degree. 

57. Changing potassium chromate to potassium bichro-. 

mate and back again. Oxidation and reduction 
in solutions. 

58. Preparation of chromic anhydride, chromic acid, and 

potassium chromate. 



150 

59. Chromium as an acid-forming and a base-forming ele- 

ment. 

60. Qualitative separation of lead, silver, and mercury. 

61. Qualitative separation of the metals of any other 

group. 

62. Study of the properties of phosphorus. 

63. Tests for ortho and meta phosphoric acids. 

64. Preparation of two double salts. 

65. Preparation of an acid salt. 

66. Preparation of sodium carbonate. 

67. Study of the preparation and composition of blue 

print paper, 

68. Composition of organic compounds. 

69. Study of a few properties of cane sugar. (12 car- 

bon.) 

70. Study of a few properties of glucose. (6 carbon.) 

71. Eelation between starch, dextrin and sugar. 

72. Detection of starch by iodin. 

73. Study of the relation between sugar and alcohol. 

74. Study of the relation between alcohol and an organic 

acid. 

75. Test for an acetate. 

76. Study of the composition of photographic materials. 
Chemical action in exposure and development. 

77. Manufacture of hard and soft soap. 

Bibliography. 

General Inorganic Chemistry. 
^— ■- 

Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry, Hollermann: Wi- 
ley. 
Principles of Inorganic Chemistry, Ostwald: The 

Macmillan Co. 
Modern Chemistry, Ramsay: The Macmillan Co. 
General Chemistry for Colleges, Smith: Century Co. 

Organic Chemistry. 

Textbook of Organic Chemistry, HoUerman: Wiley. 
Textbook of Organic Chemistry, Perkin & Kippin: 
J. B. Lippincott Co. 



151 



Theoretical Chemistry. 



Chemical Theory for Beginners, Dublin & Walker: 

The Maemillan Co. 
Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry, Getman: Wiley. 
New Era in Chemistry, Jones: Van Nostrand. 
Scientific Foundations of Analytical Chemistry, Ost- 

wald : The Maemillan Co. 
Theory for Beginners, Eamsay: The Maemillan Co. 

Physical Chemistry. 

Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences, 
Van't Hoff: University of Chicago Press. 

Introduction to Physical Chemistry, Walker: The 
Maemillan Co. 

Industrial Chemistry. 

Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorpe: The Mae- 
millan Co. 

Food Analysis. 

Food Inspection and Analysis: Wiley. 
Food Inspection and Analysis: Leach. 

Historical Chemistry. 

History of Chemistry, E. Myer: The Maemillan Co. 
Essays on Historical Chemistry, Thorpe: The Mae- 
millan Co. 

Pedagogy. . 

Teaching of Chemistry and Physics, Smith & Hall*. 

Longsman, Green & Co. 
Teaching of Science, Twiss: The Maemillan Co. 



152 

THE COMMON SCIENCES V. 



Aim. 



This course is planned for girls of the fifth high school 
year. It is assumed that these girls have already had 
four years of secondary science in concrete form. In 
their courses in elementary science, in cooking, in house- 
hold appliances and in nursing and physiology, they have 
become familiar with many of the manifestations of na- 
ture that form the bases of the sciences : physics, chemis- 
try, biology, astronomy and physiography. In these 
earlier courses, the study has been experimental and 
concerned with the interpretation and guidance of the 
phenomena of nature rather than with laws and systems 
of science. It is the purpose of this course to organize the 
information of pupils into logical form by considering 
separately the common sciences. This study should be of 
special benefit to girls who are not to elect courses in 
science at college. It will give a proper foundation for 
the work in nature study as given in the normal schools 
and for all pupils will give a general familiarity with sci- 
entific laws, with the accepted facts of science and with 
the discoveries of men working the scientific fields. 

Standards. 

Geology, 4 weeks. 
Biology, 6 weeks. 
Astronomy, 4 weeks. 
Physics, 12 weeks. 
Chemistry, 10 weeks. 

Suggestions. 

This is properly a textbook course aimed to give a com- 
prehensive view of the field of each science studied. Each 
topic should be presented by the 'teacher with simple 
classroom or field demonstration. The topics should then 
be organized by the use of the textbook, discussion and 
other available material and should be tested by complete 
recitations and not by brief answers to many questions. 



153 

In each subject the laws and leading principles should 
be carefully taught until each subject appears in an or- 
ganized system. Each pupil should prepare in each sub- 
ject an extensive notebook, planned with reference to 
sources as a help in normal school work or for study and 
revision in later years. Mathematical demonstrations and 
the details of complicated machines have no place in this 
course. Each pupil should have a textbook in each of 
the five subjects and in the choice of these care should 
be taken to select those that attempt to deal with the sub- 
ject as a whole, that are descriptive in their character and 
are distinctly good reading. For this purpose some of 
the older books are better than new ones which deal ex- 
tensively in scientific theory, in mathematical proof and in 
laboratory demonstration of standardized experiments. 

Geology Outline. i 

Lessons on home geology. 

1. General view of surrounding country. 

2. Study of exposed sections. 

3. Study of rocks. 

4. Study of soils. 

5. Study of a stream. 

Structure of the earth. 

1. Materials, rocks. 

(a) Composition, texture, classes. 

2. Arrangement of rocks. 

(a) Original structure. 

(I) Stratification, eruptive masses, veins. 

(b) Subsequent structure. 

(I) Inclinations, faults, joints, mountain 
chains, concretions, cleavage. 

History of the structure of the earth. 

1. Theory of the origin and structure of the earth as a 

whole. 

2. Geologic maps and sections. 

3. Theory of the history of North American continent. 

4. Theory of the history of New Hampshire. 

5. Theory of the history of local section. 



154 



Biology Outline. 



1. Groups of animal life : protozoa, sponges and coelen- 

terata, echinoderms, vermes, moUusks, arthro- 
pods, fishes, reptiles, birds, mammals. 

2. Struggle for existence and the development of 

higher forms. 

3. The laws of evolution. 

Astronomy Outline. 

1. Definitions, fundamental problems and sources of 

information. 

2. The earth. 

3. The moon. 

4. The sun. 

5. The planetary system. 

6. The stars and other heavenly bodies. 

Physics Outline. 

1. Gravity. 

2. Work and machines. 

3. Motion. 

4. Pressure in fluids. 

5. "Water power. 

6. Heat. 

7. Heat and work. 

8. Electric currents. 

9. Indirect currents. 

10. Electric Power. 

11. Sound and Wave motion. 

12. Music. 

13. Optics. 

14. Color. 

15. Radiation. 

Chemistry Outline. 

1. Oxygen. 

2. Hydrogen. 

3. Composition of water and combining weights. 

4. Water and solution. 

5. Atoms and molecules. 

6. Chlorine. 

7. Hydrochloric acid — chlorides. 

8. Molecular composition. 



155 

9. Atomic and molecular weights. 

10. Chemical formulas, names, equations and calcula- 

tions. 

11. Sulphuric acid and sulphates. 

12. Sodium, potassium and their compounds. 

13. Acids, bases and salts. 

14. Sulphur and its sulphides, oxides and acids. 

15. Nitrogen. 

16. The atmosphere and nitrogen compounds. 

17. The halogen group. 

18. Carbon and its oxides. 

19. Calcium and its compounds. 

20. Study of production, distribution, use and impor- 

tance of the chief minerals, such as silicon, boron, 
iron, steel, zinc, mercury, magnesium, copper, etc. 

Bihliography. 

Geology. 

First Book in Geology, Shaler: D. C. Heath & Co.^ 

Geology, LeConte : American Book Co. 

The Geological Study, Dana: American Book Co. 

Biology. 

Animal Studies, Jordan, Heath & Kellogg: D. Apple- 
ton & Co. 

Astronomy. 

Lessons in Astronomy, Young : Ginn & Co. 

Physics. 

High School Course in Physics, Gorton: Ginn & Co. 
Mann and Twiss: Scott, Foresman & Co. 

Chemistry. 

Morgan: The Macmillan Company. 

First Principles of Chemistry, Fuller, Brownlee et al: 

AUyn & Bacon. 
General Chemistry (Part I), Newell: D. C. Heath & 

Co. 
Essentials of Chemistry Williams: Ginn & Co. 



156 
CHAPTER V. 

Mathematics. 

The old program called for freshman algebra, sophomore 
geometry and a later review of both subjects. The experi- 
ence of many years has shown that abstract algebra and 
geometry for pupils of fourteen and fifteen is for many 
excessively difficult and for some impossible, and these 
courses have produced the majority of high school fail- 
ures. The senior review mathematics has ordinarily been 
an effective course with interested pupils, partly because 
some pupils have unfortunately been eliminated but more 
because the pupils have reached a maturity that makes 
abstract reasoning possible. 

The revised program proposes to take advantage of this 
condition and to put abstract mathematics in the last two 
years of the program and concrete mathematics in the first 
two. By the 1916 program, pupils now have in the sev- 
enth grade a year of concrete geometry and in the eighth 
a year of concrete algebra. With this start, it is believed 
that in the fifth year of the course the most vital parts of 
both algebra and geometry can be mastered. If not, the work 
may be completed in the sixth year, together with solid ge- 
ometry and plane trigonometry. If this seems difficult, it is 
to be remembered that pupils come to the senior year with 
a knowledge of many of the geometric constructions and 
with much practice in the use of the algebraic equations 
and, in addition, that much work in both algebra and 
geometry may weU be eliminated. In place of the font 
years in mathematics proposed, schools may, of course, 
present five or six years but such schools must show that 
quantitively five or six years of work has been outlined for 
accomplishment. 

MATHEMATICS I (CONCRETE GEOMETRY). 

Aim. 

The purpose of this course is to give boys and girls an 
adequate set of notions of certain of the properties of 



157 

space relations in the same way in which they naturally 
acquire ideas in the fields of other sciences. 

The course is one of construction and measurement and 
discovery and not one of demonstration. 

Standards. 

Not to exceed nine weeks may be spent in the review 
of arithmetic and the reorganization of the instruction in 
mathematics of the earlier grades. 

At least twenty-seven weeks should be devoted to con- 
crete geometrical exercises. The work may be based upon 
one of the suggested texts or upon lesson plans similar to 
those to which later reference is made. 

Each pupil is to prepare a complete portfolio of con- 
structions which for neatness and accuracy will be a 
credit to himself as well as to his teacher. 

Suggestions. 

It is desirable that the work of the year should begin 
with a brief review of arithmetic. There are two reasons 
for this. First, the pupils of the first-year high school 
class usually come from several different schools and a 
rapid review of known material aids in unifying the class 
and preparing it for concerted work. Second, it enables 
the teacher to become acquainted with the mental habits, 
the educational progress and the natural ability of her 
pupils. The review should be upon the four fundamental 
operations, upon decimals and fractions and should be con- 
stantly used and constantly reviewed throughout Years 
I and II. The teacher of mathematics in these years is to 
be held responsible for the retention of the arithmetic of 
the elementary schools. 

Teachers of mathematics must understand that presen- 
tation of concrete geometrj^ in Class I is an entirely differ- 
ent matter from the teaching of the traditional course in 
high school geometry. 

No formal demonstration is expected or allowed. Typ- 
ical high school geometry is logic. Concrete geometry con- 



158 



"^ 




X 




^v^ 


^ 


\ 


3 




r 


^ 


\ 


r 


K 


y 


\ 


k 


J 


/ 






X 




>. 





sists of the observation, 
measurement and drawing of 
geometrical forms and tke 
recognition of some of the 
simplest geometrical truths 
by visual proofs or through 
measurement or comparison 
of concrete figures. Teachers should not begin with defi- 
nitions of terms but should formulate class-made defini- 
tions when definitions are needed by the pupils. 

The pupils will need a drawing board, T square, 30-60 
triangle, protractor, compass and scissors. But a short 
time need be devoted to learning how to use this appara- 
tus. The use of the T square may be taught in drawing 
parallel lines, and the triangle in drawing perpendiculars 
For this purpose the pupils 
should hold the triangle with 
hypotenuse to the right and 
draw the perpendicular on the 
left. Any objects having right 
angles may be used as figures 
for this drawing. One of the walls of the schoolroom, with 
its doors, windows and pictures makes an excellent prob- 
lem. 

Pupils must be taught to use the compass so as not to 
make holes in the paper. Bracket designs, spirals, ovals 
or any of the ornamental fig- 
ures found in the standard 
geometries are suitable fig- 
ures for practice with the 
compass. This practice should 
not be continued too long 
but, as soon as the pupil has 
gained some facility with 
these pieces of apparatus, he 
should be shown some of the 





159 




ordinary designs of linoleum and encouraged to make up 
original designs of his 
own. These may be col- 
ored and of course the 
drawing teacher will be 
consulted as to choice of 
colors. Squared paper is 
most helpful in all kinds 
of design work. 

The measuring of 
heights, distance of inac- 
cessible objects, etc., should 
be done during the fall 
term while out-of-door 
work is possible. Any good 
geometry will give illus- 
trations and methods of 
these problems. A simple 
transit should be made and 
actual measurements tak- 
en with tape line of all 
out-of-door problems. 

Parallelograms, triangles, trapezoids and circles should 
be cut from paper and their 
areas discovered by compari- 
son with the oblong or rec- 
tangle which has already 
been taught in the grades be- 
low. A carpenter's six-foot 
folding rule will be found 
most helpful in teaching forms and relations of straight- 
lined figures. 

The drawing of arches commonly used in architecture 
is a most interesting way of teaching geometrical truths 
and forms. These arches may be found in the windows 




Dy 



H 




160 




H A 



of churches and public buildings in 
any town or city; indeed the num- 
ber the class will find will be more 
than it will be advisable to use. Care 
should be taken not to let this work 
take more than its share of the time 
allowance. Dictionaries and encyclopedias will give names 
and constructions of many of these arches, if they are not 
to be found in any available geometry text, but the actual 
arches should be found rather than book representations 
copied. 

The laying out of a round curbing for a street corner 
is an excellent application of the truths of tangents. 

All the high school ge- 

\\ 





ometries on hand 

be examined for 

material. What 

textbooks give as 

cises, " " optionals, 

' ' applications ' ' offer a 

wealth of material through which young pupils may be 

taught geometrical truths. 

The truths of equal triangles are best taught by laying 
these triangles with the colored kindergarten sticks, and 
by use of scissors and paper. The following type lesson 
shows how the truth that ' ' two triangles are equal if three 
sides of one are equal to three sides of another" may be 
presented : 

Take three colored sticks 2 inches, 3 inches, 4 inches 
long and lay them on a piece of paper forming a triangle. 
Compare your figure with that of the student next to you. 
Compare with others in the class. Is yours the same shape 
as theirs? Is it the same size? Are they all equal? How 
many angles has the figure ? 

What is its name? 

(Triangle, Trillum, Trident, Trio, Tri-state). 

Make a drawing of your triangle on a piece of scratch 
paper. 



161 



Cut out the triangle you drew on paper. 
Compare with those cut by the other pupils. 
Complete this statement. "Two triangles which have 
the three sides of one equal to the three sides of the other 

Think of some triangle which you have seen used in con- 
structing buildings, such as brackets for shingling, nailing 
of rafters together, etc. This property of triangles is most 
useful in constructions of all kinds. 

This lesson plan and the cuts used are from exercises 
used in the junior high school at Keene normal. Pupils 
are provided with sheets on which to draw, answer ques- 
tions, etc. Copies of these papers may be had for use in 
New Hampshire schools at cost on application to the school. 

In connection with this work, teachers should keep the 
arithmetic constantly fresh in the pupils' memory by meas- 
uring exercises requiring the use of simple arithmetical 
operations. Areas and volumes of standard forms and 
computations of similar figures and solids will provide an 
abundance of such arithmetical work. 

An excellent review may be given at the end of the 
course by having the pupils study this figure based on the 
inscribed hexagon. 

Nearly every geometrical truth of any importance may 
be found illustrated by these lines: 




162 

Bibliography. 

The following texts are suggested: 

Concrete Geometry, Nelson: Rumford Press, Concord, 
N. H. 

Contains well-planned exercises on proofs of theorems. 
Helpful for reviews. 

First Steps in Geometry : Ginn & Company. 

Excellent decorative designs, easy arithmetical exer- 
cises and out-of-door measurements. 

Plane Geometry, Wells & Hart : D. C. Heath & Company. 
Large number of excellent designs based on geometric 
figures. A high school text. 

Plane Geometry, Wentworth & Smith : Ginn & Company. 
Good compass exercises in introduction. Fine illus- 
trations of visual proofs on page 15. A high school 
book. 

Inventional Geometry, Spencer : American Book Com- 
pany. 
This is a small science primer written years ago by the 
father of Herbert Spencer and still one of the best. 

Concrete Geometry, Hornbrook: American Book Com- 
pany. 

Elementary and Constructional Geometry, Nichols: 
Longsman, Green & Company. 

Observational Geometry, Campbell: American Book 
Company. 

Junior High School Mathematics: Wentworth-Smith- 
Brown. 

There are upon the market a number of new textbooks 
on junior high school mathematics but these commonly 



163 

deal with modified arithmetic. They contain many valuable 
suggestions but may not be followed closely in teaching this 
course. 

MATHEMATICS II (CONCRETE ALGEBRA). 

The instruction should cause the fundamental concep- 
tion of algebra to register and become a part of the pupils' 
working mathematical equipment. Rote instruction which 
leaves the pupils with merely a .set of verbal memories is 
to be avoided. The pedagogy is the same as that for the 
arithmetic of the first and second grades. 

Standards. 

In the year, the following subjects should be mastered : 

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of 
polynomials, multipliers and divisors not containing more 
than two terms. 

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and re- 
duction of fractions, numerical coefficients not larger than 
25. 

Linear equations of one and two unknown quantities. 

Fractional equations containing one unknown, denomi- 
nators monomial. 

Removing of parentheses. 

Short methods of multiplication avoiding fractional 
terms, such as: (a^ + %b) 

Factoring such types as: 



a^ 


+ y4b). 


a^ 


-f 2ab + b= 


a^ 


— 2ab + b' 


a^ 


— b=^ 


a^ 


+ 8a 4- 15 


a^ 


— b^ 



a* — b* 
Solution of quadratic equations of the form of x^ — 7x. 
— 18 by factoring. 

Evaluating simple forms of literal equations. 



164 

Suggestions. 

■The equation is the center of the work and it should he 
used in the solution of very many proMems. These prob- 
lems should deal entirely with actual and familiar situa- 
tions. 

Processes should 6e taught only when they are actually 
needed, in the solution of the equations which occur in the 
experiences of the class. 

Either in the concrete geometry of Grade VII or in their 
arithmetic work, the pupils have become familiar with the 
ordinary formulas of mensuration, such as : 

Parallelogram A = bh or S = ab 

Triangle A = I/2: a X b or a = 1/2 ab or A = a X 

Trapezoid A= %h (a -j- b) or H (a + b) 



2 

Circle C = 27rd C = 27rr A = 7rR=^ 

Review these formulas by some examples of real measure- 
ments. 

Recall other principles of arithmetic which can be ex- 
pressed by formulas asI = pXrXt t = I r^I 

pr pt 

Amount = interest + principal. 

Cost = price times number of articles, etc. 

Use small numbers in this work and call measurements 
to the nearest foot or inch to avoid fractions. 

Let the pupils make up expressions such as ab -|- cd — f 
and evaluate them using different values for the letters. 

Require pupils to check every arithmetical process in ad- 
dition, subtraction, multiplication and division so that 
pupils are absolutely sure that the numerical part of their 
■ answer is correct, if the method is correct. 

After a week of drill in these formulas to familiarize 



165 

pupils with use of letters, teach addition. Begin with posi- 
tive quantities such as : 3a 2 mn 4x" then take up a 

4a 5 mn lOx^ 



positive and negative, such as : — 6a + 2x Do not 

+ 4a — lOx 



attempt to explain the reasons for any rules. Give this 
rule, ' ' subtract the smaller coefficient from the greater and 
give the answer the sign of the greater" or any similar 
simple rule. Have pupils make up a page of these exam- 
ples and give to other pupils to work. They will like them 
better than book examples. Each one should do a hundred 
of these at least. 

Place this example on the board : 

9 bu. 2 pks. 3 qts. and let the class recall their 
4 bu. 3 pks. 4 qts. 

addition of compound numbers. Then write the same ex- 
ample 9b-|-2p-|-3q and ask them to add it. 
4b-f3p-f4q 



A few such illustrations will suffice to introduce addition 
of polynomials. Drill on these until familiar, then add col- 
umns containing both plus and minus quantities. Check 
all addition by adding up and down. Insist on absolute 
correctness of nnm£rical tvorJc. 

In beginning subtraction place a variety of examples 
illustrating all possible cases on the board thus: 



5a 5a 


— 5a 


— 5a 


3a 


— 3a 


— 3a 


3a 


3a.— 3a 


3a 


— 3a 


5a 


5 a 


— 5a - 


-5a 



Teach one rule. "Think of the subtrahend with its sign 
changed and proceed exactly as in addition. ' ' In the pupil 
who is visually minded there is no harm in changing the 
subtrahend or in writing the ''changed signs" in small 
figures above the signs of the subtrahend, using a light 



166 

pencil mark, until the process is understood. Attempt no 
explanation of reasons. Competition between rows of pu- 
pils on percentage of correctness, etc., will stimulate inter- 
est. Drill for a week and for the two succeeding weeks use 
the first ten minutes of each recitation in review of addi- 
tion and subtraction. 

Any text will furnish the class with simple equations of 
one or two unknown quantities which can be solved by ad- 
dition and subtraction, but much more interest will be 
shown and far better results secured if pupils are encour- 
aged to make up their own examples. 

The mystery of algebra disappears when pupils find they 
can make up just as good examples and problems as the 
writer of the textbook. They will take delight in setting 
examples for their classmates as, "I am thinking of a 
number. If I multiply this number by 7 (7n) and then 
add 2, I shall have 30. What is the number?" Or, "If 
I multiply the number by 4 (16) and add 10, the sum will 
equal 22 more than the number." 

(4n-f-10 = 22 + n) 

Any good algebra textbook will suggest varieties of equa- 
tions of this class. 

Next take up equations containing two unknown quanti- 
ties. Have the pupils make up equations and give to each 
other for solution. Introduce problems containing one or 
two unknown quantities and have pupils make up a great 
many such problems. 

Multiplication follows now very easily. Keep all co- 
efficients small, none over 25. After the pupils can multiply 
a polynomial of four terms by one of two terms, introduce 
a few decimal coefficients, two places only, and review 
addition and subtraction, using decimal coefficients. 

Leave division until the latter part of the year. 

After pupils can add, subtract and multiply with facility 
and solve simple equations, take up the same processes with 
fractions. Use only small numerical coefficients, not larger 



167 

than 25, in fraction work, and insist on constant checking 
in all arithmetical processes to produce absolute accuracy. 

The pupils are now ready for short processes in multi- 
plication. Teach these four : 

(a-fb) (a + b); (a — b) (a — b); (a + b) (a — b); 
(a + 3) (a + 7), and just as you would teach in arithme- 
tic, that 6 is 2 X 3. After teaching that 2 X 3 is 6, teach 
that a^-f 2ab-hb2 may be written (a + b) (a + b) and 
the same with the other three forms of factoring. 

The other case of factoring, where terms have a com- 
mon factor, should be taught after division. 

Division should follow factoring, beginning with the 
simplest forms and in long division using no divisor of 
more than two terms. 

Forms like a^ + b^ -^- a + b and a* — b* -^ a — b may 
be given but not drilled upon with the fulness required by 
most texts, and all less usual classes of factoring should be 
omitted. 

After division is mastered, review fractions, .including 
reduction to lowest terms, addition, subtraction, multipli- 
cation and division, using the factorable forms. 

Simple quadratic equations which can be solved by fac- 
toring such as x^ + 8x + 15 should be taught and, if there 
is time, the substitution of numerical values in formulas 
and evaluating literal equations of the simple formula type 
for the various letters, avoiding those involving radicals 
and quadratics. 

BihUography. 

Any modern text in algebra may be used, provided that 
sufficient additions and eliminations are made. The num- 
ber of simple problems and examples performed should be 
very large and should produce habitual accuracy in the use 
of the fundamental operations. From any book used 
should be eliminated all unnatural problems, all complex 
operations, all general rules and most general formulas. 



168 

MATHEMATICS V (ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY^ 



Aim. 



It is believed that the excessive failure in the traditional 
high school course in freshman algebra and sophomore 
geometry is due to the fact that these courses are abstract 
in form and expression and are commonly given to pupils 
at an age when abstract reasoning is impossible. It is held 
that these courses are entirely fitted to the development of 
Years V and VI but not the earlier years. Accordingly, 
courses in concrete mathematics are given in Years I and 
II and in abstract mathematics in Years V and VI. 

This program assumes that pupils of Class V maturity 
who have had two years of concrete mathematics will be 
able in a single year to cover the greater part of the work 
in mathematics ordinarily given in the first two years of 
the earlier high school programs and can become sufficiently 
familiar with the truths of abstract mathematics for all 
probable heeds. It assumes that in curricula where an ab- 
stract course is given in Year VI all ordinary high school 
mathematics may be covered. Schools which do not hold 
this view may continue to give three courses in abstract 
mathematics but in that case the third course should con- 
tinue the subject into fresh fields and should not be largely 
devoted to review of familiar material. The standards set 
in this and the following courses are tentative and will be 
modified as experience accumulates. 

Algebra, 20 weeks. 
Standm^ds. 

The elementary operations. 
Special methods in multiplication and division. 
Factoring and the solution of equations by factoring, 
and the determination of the highest common factor. 

Fractions, including complex fractions and the lowest 



169 

common multiple treated in common with the related ma- 
terial on fractions. 

Fractional and literal equations. 

Problems involving single equations. 

Simultaneous linear equations containing two or three 
unknowns. 

Statistics containing positive and negative numbers 
graphically represented. The graph of a linear equation in 
two variables. The graph of simultaneous linear equa- 
tions. 

Exponents, including zero, fractional and negative. 

Radicals, Surds and Imaginaries. The square root of 
polynomials and of numerical quantities. 

Quadratic equations both numerical and literal. 

Simultaneous equations involving quadratics. 

Problems involving quadratic equations. 

Suggestions. 

Much time is wasted in the first course in algebra be- 
cause in a great many cases the high school teachers are not 
adequately acquainted with the work, methods and phrase- 
ology used in the elementary grades. Now under the new 
arrangement of the courses in mathematics, it is highly 
important that teachers know what work has been covered 
and what work is expected to be covered. 

Pupils should be taught the use of graphical methods 
and the teacher should emphasize the practical application 
of algebraic equations and formulas. In this course com- 
plicated problems and unnecessary processes should be 
omitted in favor of abundant practice in the useful opera- 
tions. From most textbooks there may be judicious elimi- 
nations. 

Bihliography. 

First, Second and Third Mathematics, Breslich: The 
University of Chicago Press. 



170 

First Course in Algebra, Hawkes, Luby & Touton: Ginn 
& Company, 

First Course in Algebra, Wells & Hart: D. C. Heath & 
Company. 

Elementary Algebra, Stone & Millis: Benj. H. Sanborn 
& Company. 

Plane Geometry, 16 weeks. 
Standards. 

The major part of the work of the text Young and 
Schwartz or the equivalent. 

Not less, than two hundred original exercises strictly 
geometric in character. 

Suggestions. 

A great many of our textbooks begin the subject of 
geometry with a set of formal definitions, axioms and 
postulates. It is not a help to high school students to give 
them at the outset formal definitions or proofs of proposi- 
tions which appear to them so obvious that they can see 
no reason for a proof. Teachers must remember that the 
main object is not to teach the pupils to know geometry 
but rather to lead them to think geometry. The early 
proofs should be intuitive, inductive and experimental, 
gradually leading up to the formal method of proof and 
it will be found that the pupils will gradually on their 
own part recognize the advantage of the reasoning process 
over that of the process of measuring. It will be of great 
advantage in the teaching of this subject to make the 
pupils feel satisfied with the early forms of proof. This 
can best be done by getting the pupils to see the truth of 
geometric statements through mental or physical inspec- 
tion of the figures rather than by the long, formal proof. 
Symmetry, an overlooked subject and one found treated in 
the latter chapters of most books, is one means of bringing 



171 

points, lines and other parts of certain figures into such 
a relation tliat the whole situation is grasped by one mental 
act. 

BiMiography. 

Plane Geometry, Wentworth & Smith : Grinn & Company. 

Plane Geometry, Slaught & Lennes : Allyn & Bacon. 

Plane Geometry, Stone & Millis: Benj. H. Sanborn & 
Company. 

Plane Geometry, Wells: D. C. Heath & Company. 

First and Second Year Mathematics, Breslich: Univer- 
sity of Chicago Press. 

MATHEMATICS VI ( SOLID GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY). 

Plane Geometry, 4 weeks. 

The review and completion of the work in plane geom- 
etry of the fifth year. 

Solid Geometry, 12 weeks. 

Standards. 

Three books of the text Wentworth and Smith or the 
equivalent, with not less than one hundred originals strictly 
geometric in character. 

Bibliography. 

Solid Geometry, Slaught & Lennes : Allyn & Bacon. 

Solid Geometry, Wentworth & Smith : Ginn & Company. 

Solid Geometry, Stone & Millis : Benj. H. Sanborn & 
Company. 

Breslich Third Year Mathematics : University of Chicago 
Press. 



172 

Advanced Algebra, 10 weeks. 

Standards. 

Equations solved like quadratics. 
General properties of quadratic equations. 
Graphs of quadratic equations in two unknowns. 
Solution of equations of degree higher than the second. 
Synthetic division, Descartes rule of signs : The Re- 
mainder Theorem: Newton's method of division. 
Indeterminate equations of the first degree. 
Arithmetical and geometrical progressions. 
The binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. 
Logarithms, exponential equations and the slide rule. 
Determinants. 

Permutations and combinations. 
Probability. 
Continued fractions. 

Suggestions. 

In dealing with the graph in- the mathematics of the 
sixth year, the teacher is given an opportunity to give the 
pupils a taste of methods different from any previously 
known by introducing a few of the fundamental principles 
of analytic geometry. For example, the class has plotted 
a linear equation. Now with this same line have the pupils 
construct the necessary figure and derive analytically the 
two point form of the equation, of the straight line and 
also the equation for the length of this line. The means 
of check is self-evident. The pupils have had not only an 
opportunity to apply in a practical way their knowledge 
gained through plane geometry, but they have had opened 
to them a new concept that will stimulate a desire on part 
of those who are to continue their work in the higher 
branches of mathematics. 



173 

Bibliography. 

Advanced Algebra, Schultz: The Macmillan Company. 

Algebra for College and Schools, Hall and Knight (re- 
vised) : The Macmillan Company. 

College Algebra, Wells: D. C. Heath & Company. 

College Algebra, "Wentworth : Ginn & Company. 

Second Course Algebra, Hawkes, Luby & Touton. 

Breslich Books, I, II and III : University of Chicago 
Press. 

Plane Trigonometry, 10 weeks. 
Standards. 

Trigonometric functions of acute angles. 
Changes of the trigonometric functions. 
Graphs of the trigonometric functions. 
Use of the table of logarithmic functions by the solution 
of right and oblique triangles. 

Relations between sides and angles of oblique triangles. 

Area of an oblique triangle. 

Relation between functions of several angles. 

The solution of trigonometric equations. 

Suggestions. 

The trigonometric functions are first to be shown by 
means of drawing and actual measurement, and not 
taught by memory. Pupils should be taught to derive 
the exact values for the functions of 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 
180°, 270°, 360°, without the use of the tables. The class 
should construct a trigonometric Function Indicator. This 
instrument will show the actual change of values and rela- 
tions between sides and angles of a right triangle which 
take place as the acute angles vary between 0° and 90° 
much more satisfactory than any number of drawings that 



174 

can be placed on the blackboard. During the course there 
should be several outdoor exercises involving the use of the 
level and the transit. School made instruments will serve 
for this purpose. 

Bibliography. 

New Complete Trigonometry, "Wells or Wentworth, 
Elements of Plane Trigonometry, Crockett: American 
Book Company. 

Third Year Mathematics, Breslich: University of Chi- 
cago Press. 

Conclusion. 

The requirements will be fully met in algebra, plane 
geometry, solid geometry, advanced algebra and plane trig- 
onometry by those schools that complete the work of the 
Breslich Books, I, II and III. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Domestic Arts. 

The Aim. 

The purpose of courses in the domestic arts in the public 
school is primarily vocational because such subjects as 
cooking, sewing, millinery, household appliances, home 
nursing, physiology, household organization, and household 
management, are directly helpful in preparing girls for the 
vocation of home-making; a vocation which becomes the 
privilege of ninety out of one hundred women to engage in 
as their life work. But unlike any other human vocation 
home-making may be culturally as broadly developmental 
as any of the so-called professions if the home-maker is 
early trained through education to follow the historic and 



175 

pre-historic footsteps made by the race during the ages in 
which the home evolved and woman found her supreme 
place as the mother, maker, and moulder of civilized society. 

Making wholesome food for the nourishment of the human 
body is as much a fine art as painting or sculpture which 
please the eye, or music which delights the ear. 

Creating a hygienic and attractive dress is as much the 
work of an artist as is decorating a china vase. The fact 
that it is useful should not detract from the "joy of accom- 
plishment" accompanying its production. ''Composing" a 
neat, satisfying living room or a cool, comfortable kitchen 
is as much the work of an artist as is the composition of a 
painting or piece of literature. In fact, it is incomparably 
more important since the family reared in a beautiful home 
adds to the sum total of good taste and fine culture in the 
world. These illustrations are sufficient to justify the be- 
lief that making a good home is quite as important for the 
welfare of the race as is composing a musical classic, writ- 
ing an enduring poem, or modelling a statue in bronze, and 
this being so, the art of the home-maker in all of its phases 
is a liberal as well as a practical art. 

The aim, moreover, in New Hampshire public school ad- 
ministration, is so to shape and develop school plans that no 
girl shall pass from the school into her life work without 
getting at least two years of systematic work in cooking and 
sewing. These years are the seventh and eighth, and may 
be in the elementary school or in the junior high school if 
the school system has the modern organization. 

COOKING I (seventh GRADE ) . 

The Aim. 

The aim is to prepare all girls by actual experience (a) 
to save perishable food products by drying, canning and 
preserving, or pickling, (b) to cook and serve wholesome 
food for everyday people, (c) to prepare suitable food for 
infants and invalids. It is not the aim to teach either the 
chemistry of foods or theories of nutrition, and the too 



176 

common practice in cooking classes of lecturing on food 
constituents, and their function in the human body is so 
far beyond the comprehension of high school pupils that it 
seems only to waste time and effort, and obscure the real ob- 
ject which is to develop through practice the art of canning, 
cooking, and serving food. 

Standards. 

Since it is proposed to cover the same subject matter 
in Years I and II, which has hitherto been covered in the 
freshman year of the four years high school, it is necessary 
to distribute the requirements given in previous programs 
and circulars for the ninth grade, so that Year I and Year 
II may have each their fair part. 

CANNING, ETC. 

Follow the requirements given in Institute Circular No. 
1, Series 1914-15, page 1, A. 

SERVING MEALS. 

Serve at least two meals per term, the first one not later 
than November 1st. 

Suggestions. 

See Program of Studies for Elementary Schools, pp. 212- 
216. 

There ought to be a much larger amount of canning than 
the minimum set, and there will be if the teaching is ef- 
fective, for pupils will do additional work at home, or the 
teacher can make the school equipment serve as a canning 
center where on Saturdays or after school pupils will can 
the products of their home gardens. 

The meals served must be practical and economical, hav- 
ing due regard for the cost involved. 

Bibliography. 

See Year II below. 



177 



COOKING II (eighth GRADE). 



The Aim. 

See Year I. 
Requirements. 



CANNING. 



Review the canning by requiring each pupil to put up at 
least two cans under each class, a, b, c, as given in Circular 
No. 1, Series 1914-15 under A. 



SERVING MEALS. 

Serve at least two meals per term. 
Suggestions. 

The twelve meals served during the two years must be 
systematically planned so that every important class of 
foods will be made use of. It will be found that all the 
standard dishes commonly served in the homes of the com- 
munity can be made use of and some of them repeated if 
these twelve menus are well thought out. 

Bibliography, for both Years I and II. 

Pedagogical. 
Institute Circulars No. Series, Page. Dealing with : 



5 1913-14 1- 4 

2 1914-15 1- 2 

57 1915-16 2- 4 

58 1915-16 1- 3 
5 1913-14 5- 8 

1 1914-15 1- 3 

2 1914-15 2- 4 
57 1915-16 4- 8 

57 1915-16 9-13 

58 1915-16 3-11 
66 1916-17 1- 2 



Cooking. 



Menus, etc. 
Requirements 

in general. 
Administration. 
Methods. 
Menus. 
Methods. 
General. 



178 

COOKING FOR THE SICK. (PART OF THE COURSE IN NURSING 
AND PHYSIOLOGY IV.) 

The Aim. 

To give pupils experience in preparing cooling drinks 
and nutritious, easily-digested foods suitable for sick and 
convalescing people. 

Requirements. 

Pupils must prepare one or more of the foods or drinks in 
each of the five classes given in Institute Circular 59, Se- 
ries 1915-16, page 17 and following. 

Excursions. The class must take at least one excursion 
each term as suggested in Circular 59, page 5. 

Experiments. The experiments given in Circular 59 and 
numbered from 1 to 26 are to be carried out in full and the 
observations, methods, apparatus and conclusions in each 
case must be recorded in a notebook used only for this 
purpose. This notebook must be completed at the end 
of each experiment and will be called for by inspectors. 

The class project given on page 9 is an important one 
and each class must prepare a set of bottles containing the 
constituents of a quart of milk. 

COOKING FOR THE WELL.. (PART OF THE COURSE IN HOUSE- 
HOLD MANAGEMENT VI.) 

The Aim. 

This course covering not more than six weeks and involv- 
ing about ten practical cooking projects and an equal num- 
ber of laboratory demonstrations is intended to teach only 
so much of the so-called science of dietetics as can be made 
use of in an intelligent selection and combination of food 
materials. 



179 

It is properly a part of household management because 
the buying and raising of food is a very important factor in 
economical housekeeping and market prices often bear little 
relation to food values. 

Standards. 

Pupils must compute many menus based on what they 
have eaten for a meal or on such menus as are served by the 
pupils in years I and II. 

There must be not less than four excursions to markets, 
cold storage plants, bakers, etc., for the purpose of getting 
familiar with the available food supply, its cost, how it is 
handled, etc. 

Bibliography. 

Circular No. 74, Series 1916-17, gives a working plan 
with considerable detail and must be followed in its essen- 
tials. 

COOKING III AND V. 

In these years, there is no school work in cooking but, 
as in sewing, there must be constant home work and the 
teacher must ascertain that this is actually being done. 

At least a portion of one period a month should be de- 
voted to class discussion of home cooking projects, plans 
and results. 

SEWING I (seventh grade). 

Aim. 

The aim is to give each girl experience in making sub- 
stantially everything she wears and to do this by always 
working on some project which at the end gives a useful, 
usable product. 

There is absolutely no excuse for the senseless, unpeda- 
gogical sampler which from the start was a device of that 



180 

type of school mind which sees nothing apart from formal 
rules and logical definitions. The six weeks September 
and October agony over ' ' stitches ' ' is another manifestation 
of the exploded theory of ' ' deferred values, ' ' getting ready 
to do something where the getting ready and the doing 
ought to be coincident. 

The first lesson in sewing for girls of this age, whether 
they have had sewing in school previously or not, must be 
a productive effort on a real piece of work. It may be 
hemming a towel, or better, making an apron or cap, and 
there is nothing to prevent starting immediately on a simple, 
everyday dress. There is no inherent sequence in sewing 
as there is in Euclidean geometry. The only pedagogical 
law that governs here is the law of interest which requires 
only that the pupil recognizes the need of some useful arti- 
cle ; that the material for making this is at hand, and then 
that the teacher proceeds directly to show the pupils 
how to do the work. See Institute Circular No. 1, Series 
1914-15, page 3. Also, No. Q6, Series 1916-17, page 2. 

Standards. 

Pupils during Year I must complete at least one project 
from each of the following classes : 

CLASS A. UNDERWEAR. 

Chemise, nightgown, corset cover, drawers, combination 
underwear, bloomers. 

CLASS B. OUTSIDE CLOTHING. 

Blouse, shirt waist, summer dress, petticoat, kimono, 
child's dress. 

CLASS C. KNITTING. 

"Wool mittens, helmet cap, scarf. 



181 

CLASS D. DARNING AND PATCHING. 

Stockings, gloves, sweater, and all kinds of mending on 
underwear or outside clothing. (This is not to be on mere 
pieces of cloth, or discarded stockings, but on real articles 
which need to be repaired because they are to be used.) 

SEWING II. (eighth GRADE.) 

The Aim. 

See Year I above. 

Standards. 

During Year II each pupil must make at least one article 
not previously made from each of classes A and B ; must 
continue darning and patching as needed, and make one 
article or more from each of the following classes: 

CLASS E. BEDDING, ETC. 

Pillow cases, sheets, towels, a patchwork quilt, a braided 
rug. 

CLASS P. 

Woolen dress, outside winter garment, knitted sweater. 

GLASS G. EMBROIDERED WORK, ETC. 

Curtains, table runners, splashers, furniture covers. 

Suggestions. 

If sewing is approved for any given school on the old 
four-year high school basis, the work to be accomplished 
in the first year of the program must be a full equivalent 
of that outlined here for both I and II. 

For the half-courses in cooking and sewing, at least two 
double periods per week are required throughout the two 
years. About one-half of the time should be given to each 



.182 

subject by a reasonable distribution rather than by a fixed 
schedule. There should be no period given to sewing dur- 
ing the canning season. 

Where school work in cooking and sewing is delayed until 
the seventh and eighth grades, it is hardly possible to do 
the full work planned without some increase in the time 
just allotted for these courses. In all schools, the work 
in both subjects should begin at least two years earlier, as 
the fifth and sixth grades are particularly satisfactory years 
for the beginning of work in cooking and sewing. 

Bibliography . 

See Program of Studies for Elementary Schools, Third 
Edition, 1916, Chapter VIII: 

SEWING in-vi. 

Sewing as an accredited part of the program with unit 
recognition ends with the above outlined work for Years I 
and II but, as home work, under the direction and helpful 
suggestions of the teacher, there ought to be a continuation 
of useful sewing throughout the high school. It may not 
be done on school time, however, for it is no lon^^er justifi- 
able to. continue teaching the subject. Every girl should 
make at least one dress a year for everyday use. Each 
girl, should, of course, make her graduation dress. In addi- 
tion, she should each year remodel some garment that has 
become worn or through changes in style has lost its at- 
tractiveness. This work should include the cleansing and 
perhaps the dyeing of the goods. 

The work of Years III to VI must be so organized that 
class time is not expended in re-teaching sewing, but teach- 
ers must guide and encourage pupils in home work to make 
certain that the instruction and practice of Years I and II 
are resulting in housewifely activities. School inspectors 
will be directed to determine that this is actually being 
done. It is suggested that in each of the above years a 



183 

portion, at least, of one period a month be alloted to class 
consideration of home work, with an exhibition of results. 
At this time, the pupils should present their sewing diffi- 
culties to the class and teacher for solution and desired 
work should be planned in accordance with the changes 
dictated by fashion. 

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES III. 

Aim.. 

The chief aim is to make girls familiar with the equip- 
ment of a modern home by actual study of such equipment. 
This cannot be done from books but must be accomplished 
by means of personal investigation and detailed examina- 
tion of the utensils, machines and devices which the home- 
keeper is constantly making use of. 

A secondary aim, but an important one, is to furnish 
concrete experience with applied science, heat, electricity, 
sound, light, chemistry, bacteriology, etc., thereby laying 
a real foundation for science. The science, however, must 
grow out of a familiarity with the device through which 
it is applied, e. g., the S trap in the sink drain is studied 
for the sake of what it accomplishes in a hygienic way. It 
is undesirable to study the scientific principles of a lab- 
oratory device which has no useful connection with . any- 
thing. "We really retain only the knowledge we apply." 

Standards. 

There should be the equivalent of one well-planned, pur- 
poseful excursion each week to see various forms of house- 
hold equipment and appliances either in actual use or in 
salesrooms, shops or factories where the parts can be seen 
and the plan of construction understood. This is the most 
important part of the course because it is the center around 
which the recitation is planned as well as the source of 
information upon which the conclusion of the lesson de- 
pends. 



184 

Pictures of a furnace or pump or stove cannot be sub- 
stituted for personal investigation of a real furnace, pump 
or stove. 

Pupils are required to keep a neat, orderly, condensed 
notebook in which are to be recorded the facts the pupil has 
gathered from these excursions and not the second-hand 
information the teacher has delivered in lecture form. 

Each of the nine classes of topics given in Institute Cir- 
cular No 5, Series 1914-15, pages 3 and 4, must be studied 
according to the general plan outlined for classes A, B, D 
and F in Circulars Nos. 5, 17, and 18, Series 1914-15. 

A textbook in household physics, so called, cannot be sub- 
stituted for this course in household appliances. It must be 
a course based on investigations through excursions and 
the teacher must so plan and conduct the course. 

Suggestions. 

See Institute Circulars Nos. 5, 17 and 18. 

This course must not spread itself over the formal side 
of chemistry, physics, bacteriology, zoology, and the like, 
but must stick to its text which is household appliances, 
i. e., the tools, equipment, devices, apparatus, etc., of a mod- 
ern, comfortable home. 

Bibliography . 

The circulars above named and a variety of books on 
elementary science, catalogs of household equipment, etc. 

NURSING AND PHYSIOLOGY VI. 

The Aim. 

This course is designed to prepare the home-maker for 
intelligently meeting the emergencies which are likely to 
arise in the home (first aid), to care for sick and convales- 
cent members of the family when a professional nurse is 



185 

either unnecessary or unprocurable and what is equally im- 
portant to provide living conditions such that good health 
may be promoted. This last implies good air, good water, 
simple, wholesome food, clean surroundings, suitable cloth- 
ing, good personal habits, proper exercises, reasonable rec- 
reation, etc. 

As a secondary aim, it has for its object a reasonable 
familiarity with the parts and function of the human body, 
that is, as a result of the study of what to do in a drowning 
accident plus a study of the need of good air and hence 
good ventilation under normal conditions, the pupil must 
be led to know the general function of lungs and air pas- 
sages and finally the general anatomy of the respiratory 
system. 

The pedagogical order here is pathology, physiology, 
anatomy and to reverse this is to teach a formal science be- 
fore the pupil knows its applied side. 

"Contrary to common educational theory and practice, 
the practical technological side of science should precede its 
purer forms." — G. Stanley Hall. 

Standards. 

The four major divisions of this course are respiration, 
circulation, nutrition and nerve transmission. Circular No. 
94, Nursing and Physiology, Part I, gives a practical work- 
ing plan for the division, respiration. Other circulars will 
be issued covering at least circulation and nutrition. Cir- 
cular No. 59, Feeding the Sick, is planned to meet the re- 
quirements of the nutrition so far as this year's work in 
nursing is concerned, and Circular No. 74, Feeding the 
Well, although written to help in presenting the course in 
dietetics which is a subordinate part of the household man- 
agement course, may also be used in a general way when 
the physiology of nutrition is being considered in its rela- 
tion to health and disease. 



186 



Requirements. 



There must be at least the following experiments in Cir- 
cular No. 59 carried out by the pupils and concisely written 
up in a permanent notebook used only for this course, 
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The second series, Nos. 8, 9, IQ 
and 11, must also be carried out fully in the laboratory. 

The class project on page 9 should be worked out and the 
results properly displayed in suitable bottles properly 
marked. 

Two class projects given as experiments 12, 13 and 14 
must be worked out in a similar manner to that for milk. 

The experiments on eggs, Nos. 15, -16 and 17, are required 
to be, performed and written up. 

The digestion experiments, 18 to 26, may be divided into 
two or three groups and assigned to different divisions of 
the class, each carrying out their own assignment and re- 
porting on it with suitable demonstration so that the other 
members of the class will get the result of the work of each 
division. 

This laboratory work is not of secondary importance. 
It is fundamental and must be given its necessary amount 
of time. It is infinitely more important than cataloguing 
the bones of the skeleton or memorizing the names of the 
tissues and glands. 

There must be systematic development of chest and ab- 
dominal breathing and records of chest expansion and its 
development for each pupil. 

In conformity to plans suggested in Circular No. 95, 
each pupil must be taught by practice to perform the 
manipulations essential to resuscitation in drowning acci- 
dents and must be taught the method of determining pulse 
beat, temperature, breathing sounds and, so far as possible 
in a general way, to interpret the meaning of these observa- 
tions and determinations. 

Each class must investigate and be able to explain the 
New Hampshire laws relative to contagious diseases and 



187 

must know the powers and duties of local and state health 
officers. 

The meaning of quarantine laws, so far as the home and 
school are concerned, must be well known. The class should 
write to the Secretary of the State Board of Health for such 
information as it needs and cannot get locally. 

Every teacher must have on her desk a copy of the laws, 
rules and regulations of the state on matters of disease, 
hygiene, etc. 

SCHOOLROOM VENTILATION AND TEMPERATURE, 

There must be a record of the classroom temperature for 
the domestic arts classroom, at least, and it ought to be made 
the business of the domestic arts department to have gen- 
eral oversight of the heating, light, and ventilation of the 
school building in which the work is carried on. 

Teachers are required to have on their desks and to 
make constant use of circulars of the state department and 
in particular to base their work in this course on Circular 
No. 94 and subsequent related circulars. 

Notebooks sufficient to enable the inspector to know 
whether or not this work is thus carried on must be kept 
by the pupils and must be up to date and in the schoolroom 
daily. 

Suggestions. 

This is a laboratory and investigation course. The 
teacher must plan her lessons to conform to the outline 
here given and must know M^here pupils may readily find 
the needed material and references for a proper study of 
the topics assigned. 

Bibliography. 

New Hampshire State Department Circulars. 

State Laws, State Board of Health Bulletins relative 
to sanitation, hygiene, contagious diseases, etc., — State 
Board of Health, Concord. 



188 

Pure Food Laws, etc., — State Board of Health, Con- 
cord. 

Contagious Diseases of Domesticated Animals, — Com- 
missioner of Agriculture. 

Pure Food Laws and Regulations of the United States, 
— Department of Agriculture, Washington. 

First Aid (Red Cross booklet). 

Civics and Health, — Allen. 

A Variety of Texts on Physiology and Hygiene. 

HOUSEHOLD ORGANIZATION V. 

The Aim. 

The course in household organization may be either a 
semester course or a course covering an entire year accord- 
ing as the program for any given school is approved. The 
same general plan will answer for either case, however. 
The household organization course is the first of two gen- 
eral courses having in view the problems that would con- 
front a young home-maker about to enter upon her duties. 
It involves first, getting the home organized and in shape 
to be run. The second course, that of household manage- 
ment, deals with actually running the home after it is 
organized. 

There is abundant material for a full year of very prof- 
itable work in this course if the teacher breaks loose from 
texts and follows the course which the instinctive nest- 
building, home-planning tendency dictates. 

PLAN OF HOUSE. 

Standards. 

Each pupil must either (a) make plans and proper 
estimate of cost for remodelling an existing house, for 
instance her own home, or (b) make plans for a new, 
modest, comparatively inexpensive house, such as she 
might like to live in but one which an income of $1200 a 
year could be reasonably expected to maintain. 



189 

Such plan must include a lot of land sufficient in size to 
afford room for a garden 50 feet by 100 feet, or larger. 
These plans are to be pencil drawings drawn to one- 
fourth-inch scale, giving basement and floor plans, together 
with a plan of the lot with house, garden, lawn, shrubs and 
trees located, this plan being an one-eighth-inch or one- 
sixteenth-inch scale as seems best. 

From this point on the method of procedure will be sub- 
stantially the same under both plans. After a proper 
arrangement of rooms is decided upon, the problem of 
painting or staining the woodwork, tinting or papering 
the walls is first to be solved. The whole plan should be 
treated from a simple, artistic point of view with due re- 
gard to moderate expense. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Here is a chance to apply in a definite case the knowl- 
edge of household equipment and appliances derived from 
the sophomore year course. It involves the problem of 
heating apparatus, kitchen equipment, bathroom fixtures, 
laundry arrangements, and the general furniture and fur- 
nishings of the entire house, having in mind the general 
decorations worked out for the various rooms. 

GARDEN AND GROUNDS. 

The modern home should have proper surroundings. 
There should be a sizable garden including vegetables, 
fruit trees, small fruits, a moderate amount of shrubbery 
and flowers. The planning of the garden should become 
an actual home project in gardening so that each domestic 
arts girl taking this course will actually plan, plant and 
care for a home garden. 

The order in which this work is taken up should con- 
form to the seasons. Heating is a fall subject, gardening 
a spring subject. The other factors in the course may be 
taken up at almost any season of the year. 



190 

There must be an itemized estimate of the cost of the 
furnishings and equipment, the data being derived from 
actual selection of as much of this as possible from local 
stores or from catalogues of metropolitan department 
stores, etc. 

Each pupil must plan the details of a kitchen garden 
suited to the situation, and must decide upon the ornamen- 
tal shrubs, trees and flowers that are to be used for beau- 
tifying the lawn. 

LAUNDRY. 

In these courses, the cleansing of garments and house- 
hold textiles is not to be taught as a half-semester course 
in theory but by practice and instruction throughout the 
six years. In the first two years, this will be connected 
with the making and remodeling of garments and with 
the linen of the dining room. In the third year, in the 
household appliances, the machinery of the laundry will 
be used and studied. In the fourth year, in the subject 
of nursing and physiology, and in the last two years the 
courses in household organization and household manage- 
ment give full opportunity for the practical study of all 
kinds of laundry operations. 

Suggestions. 

The general plan contemplates getting the home in shape 
to be run. That is, in planning the house, whether remod- 
eled or built new, equipping it suitably and preparing it 
for occupancy. It must be a home such that the income 
that will be assumed in the home-management class later 
on will be adequate for support and maintenance. 

The teacher may derive the right point of view by think- 
ing of the merchant who is about to start a new business. 
He first decides upon a location. He either takes an ex- 
isting building and remodels it or builds a new store. He 
next selects the fixtures for the store and installs them. 



191 

He then buys a stock of goods and displays them on his 
shelves and in his windows. All this is done before the 
time of opening his store to the public. This is his store 
organization. After this comes the business of managing 
his store. The same general idea carried into the organiza- 
tion and management of the home is what we have in mind 
in the two courses, household organization and household 
management. 

Bibliography. 

See Household Management VI. 

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT VI. 

Aim. 

The course in household management may be either a 
semester course or a course covering an entire year accord- 
ing as the program for any given school is approved. The* 
household management course takes up the work where the 
household organization ends and involves the idea of ac- 
tually managing a home. 

Each member of the class should endeavor to put her- 
self into the position of that confronting the average young 
housekeeper after she has selected and equipped her house. 
It should be based upon the very same idea that this girl 
had in mind when working out her particular project in 
household organization. It should have for its basis a 
reasonable assumption as to income, this, of course, result- . 
ing in an intelligently worked-out budget, apportioning 
this salary to the usual recognized divisions of household 
management. 

The teacher must endeavor to secure such an interest in 
this project that the pupil will plan as seriously and enter 
into details as clearly as would be the case if she were ac- 
tually planning and budgeting for real home-keeping. 
This is not a difficult task if the problem is earnestly and 
seriously presented from a practical point of view. 



192 



Standards. 



Each pupil must prepare for herself a budget based on 
assumed incomes of $1000, $1200, and $1500 respectively. 

This budget should not be conventional class work 
and each pupil should not arrive at the same 
identical conclusion, nor should this conclusion come 
from a textbook published when prices were fifty 
per cent, lower than at present. It should te the re- 
sult of each pupil's personal study of her own assumed 
prohlem and must be based on prices that are up to the 
minute. The teacher and class will decide upon general 
divisions for the budget but details are for each pupil to 
work out according to her own home experience, taste, and 
good sense. 

To prevailupon the girl who loves a horse better than 
she does an automobile to figure up-keep, gas bills, and 
insurance on a motor car when she ought to be figuring 
^on hay, oats, and curry combs, is to attempt the impossible. 
It is part of the fatally formalistic fallacy of schools 
which, after the manner of a clothespin manufactory, at- 
tempt to turn their product out all of one size and form. 
It can be done with birch clothespin wood. It can't be 
done with human beings. 

The annual income should not only be divided to pro- 
vide for food, fuel, clothing, education, amusement, im- 
provement, etc., etc., but each of these sums of money 
should be entered as the working capital of an equal num- 
ber of accounts kept in the ledger or in a card system de- 
vised to be simple and at the same time comprehensive 
enough to give the main items of expense connected with 
managing a home. In many respects, a simple card sys- 
tem is more desirable for this work than the ledger. The 
cards should be so ruled as to give debit and credit col- 
umns, with a third column to show the available balance 
at any given time. Budgeting may be taken up first and 
completed on the basis of such information as pupils can 
gather or it may be developed more slowly, the major 



193 



items being first determined, leaving a portion of the in- 
come undistributed for the later items as they arise. Either 
method will work out satisfactorily. 

Each pupil must budget the assumed income and start 
some form of household accounting simple enough to be 
easily kept but comprehensive enough to show in the end 
how her proposed outlay in each division corresponds with 
the amount set aside for the division. 

Ruled notebooks, or a card ledger, may be used, but 
whatever the system it should show at any time just how 
expenses are totaling and what balance is left. 

SAMPLE OF CARD RULING. 



Food. 


Dr. 


Cr. 








Date. 


Apportionment. 


Paid Material. 












Groceries. 


Meat, Milk 
and Fish. 


Total . 


Bal. 


Sept. 1 


$200.00 


Flour, $10.00 


$4.75 


$14.75 


$185.25 



There should be a summary card for each item appor- 
tioned in the budget, and there may be cards under each 
of these on which the details of transactions are recorded. 
Each pupil at the end of the year must have a complete 
set of accounts showing just what has become of every 
dollar originally budgeted. It will be found possible to 
work this by weeks, or months, probably the latter. 

Food, clothing, interest, taxes and repairs, fuel, educa- 
tion, charity, etc., are among the important divisions of 
the budget. 

Each pupil must present a summary of the estimated 
yearly quantity of food required per family or per person, 
i. e., flour, meat, milk, sugar, fruit, etc. 

Each pupil must similarly estimate the amount of fuel, 
the cost of clothing, kind and cost of papers, magazines, 
books, or music, etc., to be bought. 

13 



194 

FOOD. 

One of the important subjects to be studied is food 
materials and foods. What was taught as reliable dietetic 
information ten years ago is, in the light of recent inves- 
tigation, inaccurate and of small value. 

Undoubtedly there will be a science of dietetics some 
day which will compare favorably with the science of 
medicine, but at present feeding the human race is, at 
best, an experimental art, and at worst, it is just eating 
three times a day. (See Circular No 59, Series 1915-16, 
pp. 1-3. Also Circular No. 74, pp. 1-3, etc. ) 

The actual problems of the home in buying and cook- 
ing food, in producing as much as possible in the garden, 
and in combining such foods into well-planned menus giving 
variety and a sufficient quantity, are the ones the high 
school senior should study. 

There is no demand for anything more than an occa- 
sional lesson in cooking. Every menu plan, however, as a 
part of the proposed home-making, must be based on 
present-day prices, must be economically planned, and 
must be seasonable and reasonable. 

Study the markets weekly. See what is most economical 
at the time, and for this purpose let the food study cover 
the whole year, but it must receive only one period per 
week of school time. 

' MILLINERY. 

It is not desirable that millinery be regarded as a 
subject separate in itself and with a distinct place in the 
program for formal approach, study and conclusive de- 
ductions. . This would be possible only if hats were as 
changeless in style as fractions and irregular verbs. In 
the sewing classes, when the spring hat season approaches 
is the time for an intensive week for retrimming of actual 
hats which must be worn for the season. Old hats and the 
material and trimming for new ones should be brought to 
the classroom for purposeful work. This study may be 



195 

repeated in the fall. In the two following years, the 
teacher at the proper season should aid by advice and di- 
rection and may devote a part of a single day to class 
assistance and instruction. 

In Years V and VI, a more formal course may be 
given, with a careful study of fitting colors and appropri- 
ate forms and economical arrangement. The work may 
be made an integral part of the course in household or- 
ganization and household management but in either year 
not more than three weeks of time should be given. 

Suggestions. 

Circular No. 74 must be made use of in determining the 
food requirement of the home. A subsequent circular will 
be issued covering clothing, education, amusement, vaca- 
tion expenses, fuel, etc. 

This course, if properly appreciated by the teacher, can- 
not fail to give to the senior high school girl a point of 
view towards the whole art of making and managing a 
home, which will not only make the course interesting, but 
will develop an attitude of mind favorable to her later 
success as the head of a home. If it does this it will do 
more for the future welfare of the world than any other 
course within the range of a girl's education. 

Teachers should encourage pupils to get their data first 
hand from parents, merchants, manufacturers, managers 
of public institutions, etc. ; in fact, from every available 
source where knowledge exists relative to any item of ad- 
ministration entering into home-making. 

Bibliography. 

It seems unwise to list here texts for household organ- 
ization and household management. No single textbook 
should be used, for these are not recitation courses. Most 
publishers have books that deal with varying phases of 
these subjects and a library of these should be in the 
school and constantly used for information and for com- 



196 

parison. In addition, the household papers and magazines 
furnish timely discussions of the organization and man- 
agement of the home and should be studied with discrimi- 
nation. 

General Reference Books : 

Canning, Preserving and Jelly Making. Hill. Little Brown & Co. 

The Business of Housekeeping Taber. Lippincott. 

Canning and Preserving Powell. Lippincott. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Commerce. 

Any commercial curriculum designed to satisfy the 
popular demand for commercial education and to meet the 
immediate need of pupils must of necessity be not only 
vocational but of a somewhat narrow ''trade-school" type. 
This is unfortunate because at the age when secondary 
school pupils decide upon their high school curricula they 
are neither themselves qualified to choose wisely nor is any 
parent or teacher able to determine what aptitudes ^^nll 
unfold during the next four years or what circumstances 
will develop in the pupil's surroundings which will make 
any particular vocation desirable or satisfactoi:y. Neverthe- 
less, the attraction of the office and store and the immediate, 
even if meagre, cash returns, together with the appearance 
of gentility when contrasted with really productive work in 
the shop or on the farm or in the household, have created 
an abnormal demand for this type of education and, while 
it is unquestionably true that today there are in New 
Hampshire at least three times as many high school pupils 
enrolled in commercial courses as can hope to find satis- 
factory and profitable employment, many school authorities 
have thought it necessary to ignore the most elementary 
truths of pedagogy and provide for this real, even if un- 
wise, demand. 



197 

If village high schools and those so located that their 
graduates cannot find clerical employment must offer 
"trade" courses along commercial lines, the curriculum 
should be made sufficiently broad to provide a fair educa- 
tion for the two out of three who will not make use of their 
commercial training other than temporarily. 

Ninety girls out of every one hundred actually do be- 
come home makers. It is logical, therefore, to provide 
ways in which the largest possible number may receive 
systematic domestic arts training. For this reason alone 
all commercial courses for girls ought to provide as a con- 
eoniitant to the commercial subjects the regular home mak- 
ing subjects of the domestic arts curriculum. 

If this is objected to on the ground that we are thus 
bringing together two vocational courses, the answer is 
that while a domestic arts course is in fact a vocational 
course, it is unique in that what is a vocation to the home 
maker is also broadly and generally developmental in its 
relation to the origin and evolution of the modern home 
and hence is in all respects as much a classic with respect 
to that greatest of all human institutions, the home, as are 
the ancient languages to modern literature or the discov- 
eries of Newton and Archimedes to modern science. Conse- 
quently, a well organized domestic arts curriculum is both 
a practical and a liberal arts curriculum. 

Aims. 

1. A commercial curriculum must teach the language 
of the world of commercial activities. Therefore, the 
curriculum includes that special form of written language, 
stenography. 

2. It must develop the technique of the commercial arts 
such as the use of the typewriter, adding-machine, dupli- 
cator and the other machines and appliances of the well 
equipped office. 

3. It must develop familiarity with the everyday 
methods of account keeping as practiced in stores, rail- 



198 

road offices, insurance offices, banks and municipal depart- 
ments; methods which make use of modern devices, of 
multiple column ledgers and of cards and loose-leaf sys- 
tems, etc. 

4. It must deal with methods of office organization, 
such as filing, cataloguing, indexing, follow-up work, 
graphing, etc. 

5. In addition to the above, there must be real live 
courses designed to acquaint the pupil with the great 
world commerce; its routes of travel and means of trans- 
portation and communication; its ways of adjusting debit 
and credit. This requires a study of commercial history, 
commercial geographj^, of tariffs, subsidies, reciprocal 
trade agreements, of capital and labor and, in general of 
as many as possible of the typical relationships of individ- 
uals, corporations and nations as the time available and 
the qualifications of the teacher will permit. 

6. To sum up, review, and test the whole, there should 
be a genuine course in office practice, whereby the pupil 
may acquire through experience competency for effective 
work iii a permanent office position. 

7. The five courses which follow in detail are the ones 
named in the recommended curricula of this program. It 
is believed that the course given elsewhere under the name 
Economics and Business Practices, even for pupils in the 
commerce curriculum, is of more value than the traditional 
textbook course in commercial law. Schools which prefer 
the older course in commercial geography and political 
economy and in commercial law will find them outlined in 
the program of 1912, 

Standards. 

TYPEWRITING. 

At the end of one full year's work, that is, at the end 
of the first semester of Year IV, a speed of twenty words 
per minute after deducting one-half point for each error. 



199 

At the end of the second full year 's work, that is, at the 
end of the first semester of Year V and thereafter, a speed 
of 30 words a minute after deducting one point for each 
error. 

STENOGRAPHY. 

At the end of the first full year, that is, at the end of 
Year IV, sixty words per minute after deducting one point 
for each error. 

At the end of the second year, that is, at the end of Year 
V and thereafter, a speed of 100 words per minute after 
deducting two points for each error. 

Definite standards for commercial courses, together with 
tests of determination and suggestions on classroom pro- 
cedure, are given in Circular No. 93. This circular should 
be on the desk of every teacher of commerce courses. 

Suggestions. 

BOOKKEEPING, ARITHMETIC AND TYPEWRITING III. 

There are two elements in this year's work, bookkeeping 
and arithmetic with detailed recitations, and typewriting 
with single periods for three days in the week. 

Bookkeeping will in most cases need to be based upon 
one of the texts or bookkeeping systems common in our 
schoolrooms but it is highly essential that the course should 
be broader and more modern than any textbook. Both 
teacher and class should actually be familiar with the 
methods of bookkeeping used in the stores, factories and 
offices of the community. There should be much study of 
commercial paper of all kinds and of the practices which 
prevail daily in business operations. 

Inspectors will be required to determine that classes 
know the methods of accounting employed by local busi- 
ness men. 

The arithmetic should not be studied as a thing apart 
but as a tool to be kept sharp for constant use in the solu- 



200 

tion of the problems which arise in the recording of busi- 
ness accounts, that is, in bookkeeping. Textbooks should be 
in the hands of the pupils for reference, for review and for 
advanced study, and much class time should be devoted 
to instruction, to practice and to drill, but the study and 
the instruction should be upon the principles needed for 
the solution of the business problems of the bookkeeping 
lesson. The practice. should be upon forgotten mathemat- 
ical processes which now are again needed. Drill on the 
essentials should be constant but should be for brief daily 
periods only. 

Teachers have long thought of typewriting as necessarily 
associated with stenography. In its early stages, there 
is no connection between the two and it is very desirable 
that all pupils should early be acquainted with the manipu- 
lation and use of the typewriter. The first work on the 
typewriter should not be delayed beyond Year III and for 
commercial pupils a good start should be made with the 
typewriter before a beginning is made in stenography. 
During this year, there should be an intimate connection 
between the work in typewriting and the course in Eng- 
lish, since in the composition of English III there should 
be much instruction and practice in actual letter writing. 
After what little preliminary instruction and guidance is 
needed, the beginner should secure his practice in the 
writing of actual letters and so provide a real motive for 
learning the typewriter. The standard for this half-year 
is ability to produce without difficulty satisfactory type- 
written letters. 

The beginner upon the typewriter longs for accomplish- 
ment and will gain rapidly in speed and accuracy when he 
knows that he is actually producing something of acknowl- 
edged use and value. If instead he is obliged to spend 
hours in writing and rewriting nonsensical phrases which 
work out some one's theory of the logical order of intro- 
ducing human fingers to the several letters of the key- 



201 

board, interest soon dies away and the first element in 
effective habit formation is lost. 

From the first, the practice upon the typewriter is to be 
super%'ised and insistence placed npon correct habits of 
manipulation. 

BOOKKEEPING. ARITHMETIC, STENOGRAPHY AND TYPE- 
WRITING rv'. 

Through this year, a double period is provided for work 
in these four branches of commerce. The bookkeeping and 
arithmetic should continue as in Year III until a point of 
mastery is reached. 

Until the middle of the year typewriting will have 
little connection with stenography but should develop 
as an art in itself. In any office, the transcription of steno- 
graphic notes is but a small part of the regular work re- 
quired. Seldom, if ever, should pupils be required to copy 
legal documents, court cases and other stock material. In- 
stead, the typewriting should produce actual forms needed 
for the school or for other organizations. Among these 
should be real programs of coming social events, records, 
reports and class lists and syllabi for the teachers. Every 
school can find abundant real material ready at hand and 
teachers should list the products of the typewriting classes 
exactly as the teachers of manual training list the pro- 
jects made in their classes. 

The work in stenography is the most important part of 
the work this year. It is to be emphasized that in learn- 
ing stenography the pupils are acquiring a new language 
and the pedagogy is that common in language instruction 
to beginners. " The teacher of stenography should study 
the literature which deals with the pedagogy and psychol- 
ogy of teaching reading in classes of beginners and should 
be entirely familiar with the principles of habit formation 
through drill. 



202 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY IV. 

Rather commonly this course has consisted of a half-year 
of recitation from a textbook in commercial geography, fol- 
lowed by a similar half-year of commercial history, and 
the course as a whole has had little real value. 

The subject is best taught when there is a maximum of 
investigation and a minimum of formal recitation. In 
general not over 30 per cent, of the total time involved 
should be given to recitation. The remainder should be 
devoted (a) to local investigation of industries and occu- 
pations, (b) to reference-book study, (c) to correspondence 
with manufacturers, importers. United States Consuls, 
United States departments in Washington, etc. Bach 
pupil is to select, work up and prepare a paper on one sub- 
ject from each of the following classes: 

A. Foods: Cereal crops, vegetables, fruit, meat, tea, 
coffee, cocoa. 

B. Clothing: Cotton, woolen, flax and hemp, silk. 

C. Building Materials: Lumber, stone, brick, lime and 
cement, iron and steel. 

D. Transportation: By water, rail, auto trucks. 

E. Local Industries : Each pupil must work up in de- 
tail at least one local industry and must prepare a paper 
covering this investigation. . 

Many schools make commercial geography and commer- 
cial history a thing of life by collecting information from 
all over the world. It is especially important at this time 
to keep in closest touch with the changed 'and changing 
commercial relations growing out of the new place the 
United States now occupies as a "World Power. 

This subject should be something different from the very 
excellent work that has long been done in grammar schools. 
It must be real high school investigation commensurate 
with the ability of the high school pupil. 



203 

The two subjects of the course should not be separate 
but taught as one. Each pupil will, of course, have a text- 
book in commercial geography and one in commercial his- 
tory but, in place of a page by page study and recitation, 
the work will be by topics similar to the main ones given 
above and from the text on history as well as that on geog- 
raphy, information will be sought. 

STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING, SPELLING AND CORRESPOND- 
ENCE v. 

In Year IV, by much practice, the technique of both 
typewriting and stenography has reached a reasonable de- 
gree of perfection. During this year it is necessary to in- 
crease the speed until office standards are reached. In 
stenography, this should be accomplished by the end of the 
year; in typewriting, by the end of the first semester. 
For the remainder of Year Y and for the following year, 
slight attention should be given to typewriting as a process, 
but the typewriter should be in constant use as a means 
of expression and record, and pupils should be held to 
standards of speed and accuracy. This may be done 
through practice in business correspondence. 

Commonly in commerce curricula, much time is given 
in the first year of the program, that is, in Year III, to 
drill in penmanship and spelling. It is proposed here that 
during Years III and IV the pupils should be required to 
write legibly and to spell ordinary words correctly but that 
little class time be devoted to drill upon these subjects. 
The reason for this is that the developmeiit of pupils of 
the average age of those enrolled in these years is such 
that attempts at drill, review and organization of systems 
are not effective and the results are not permanent. In 
Years V and VI, most pupils have reached a period of per- 
manent adjustment. These are the first years since the 
pupil left the sixth grade when formal instruction in pen- 
manship and spelling can be made worth whole. In these 
years, the rules of spelling may be taught and applied, 



204 

and intensive systematic practice in penmanship will pro- 
duce results much as it does with somewhat older students 
in private commercial schools. For Year V, the program 
should provide double periods for two days each week. 

OFFICE PRACTICE, STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING VI. 

It has been completely demonstrated that under compe- 
tent teachers the standards set for stenography and type- 
writing can be reached at the end of two full years of high 
school work. Schools which find they are not accomplish- 
ing this should reorganize their commerce courses under 
capable teachers. 

No school with three courses devoted mainly to formal 
instruction in either of these two subjects will be approved. 
The course of this final year should be the fruition of the 
curriculum. The office practice should be under actual 
business conditions and may not be a name behind which is 
concealed still more unmotivated drill on keys, forms and 
outlines. 

A stenographer or office clerk is of no more value in an 
office than a neostyle or an addressograph or any other 
mechanical machine, unless she thinks. A large number of 
graduates in commerce go into business offices and are 
found to be mechanical machines only. Their work is ab- 
solutely correct, if some one touches the right keys in the 
right order. This course is designed to remedy such a 
condition. 

Large schools should provide for this course offices with 
the full modern equipment of a business office, including 
the usual office machinery, office appliances and office 
equipment. In addition, these schools should take over the 
actual business of the school or of some department of the 
city or town and in performing the operations should be 
held responsible for creditable results. 

In smaller towns where there are fewer opportunities for 
this office practice, there are still abundant opportunities for 
actual clerical work at the school or elsewhere, in homes, 



205 

offices or stores. This may include the optional or regular 
transcription of letters for the professional or semi-pro- 
fessional men of the village, the keeping of records for so- 
cieties and organizations, the balancing of accounts at the 
village store and similar work which a live teacher, who 
knows her town, will be able to find. Inspectors will deter- 
mine that wherever this course is given, work of this nature 
be actually done. 

Bibliography. 

Spelling Efficiency : Wallin. 
The Teaching of Spelling: Suzzallo. 
The Teaching of Handwriting : Freeman. 
Educative Process : Bagley, pages 328 to 331, Macmillan. 
Piano Playing : Hofmann, Doubleday, Page & Co. 
The Teaching Process : Strayer, pages 4-50, Macmillan. 
The Psychology of Learning: Thorndike. 
The Psychology of Skill: Book. 

Journal of Educational Psychology: Pyle, Vol. V, pages 
247-258. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Agriculture. 

In the elementary program, home gardens, with school 
supervision and instruction, are emphasized throughout 
the six years. This work should continue in the high 
school at least through Years I to IV. During these years, 
gardens are included among the B Subjects. If the 
courses outlined for the elementary school have been well 
presented, little additional instruction should be needed 
from high school teachers. The organization of the school, 
however, should carry forward the work under the inter- 
ested supervision of the teachers and with constant corre- 



206 

lation with the school work in other subjects. The school 
fair or exhibit of productions is a valuable factor in the 
development of school spirit and school recognition. 

In Part II of this program on page 48, the statement i^ 
made that French is recommended in Years I and II for 
all programs of approved secondary schools but it may be 
replaced by two well- organized courses in agriculture. In 
many rural schools this is necessary and probably desira- 
ble. There are two ways of meeting this proposal. 

1. For French I and French II, there may be substi- 
tuted Horticulture and Soil Study III and Wood Work 
III, as these courses are described later in this chapter. 
One course should not be given in the first year and the 
other in the second but the horticulture and the carpentry 
should continue together throughout both years, with daily 
exercises. This course in horticulture may be taken by 
both boys and girls but girls may replace some of the farm 
carpentry by additional projects in dressmaking. Pupils 
who complete the above subjects will be prepared for ad- 
vanced work as they come to Year III. 

2. Schools may present a program for Years I and II 
which in each year provides the following unit courses : 

Concrete Mathematics, 5 days 5 periods 

United States History, 5 days 5 periods 

Elementary Science, 5 days 5 periods 

Manual Training or Domestic Science, 2i/^ days 5 periods 

Gardening, 21/^ days 5 periods 

This is similar to the regular program proposed on page 
41, except that elementary science is increased from three 
to five days a week and the full outline given in the ele- 
mentary program for science in Years VII and VIII must 
be covered. In addition the work in gardening must be 
entirely definite and must follow the outline given in Cir- 
cular No. 94. In place of two and one-half days a week 
given to each subject, the work should be distributed to fit 



207 

the seasons but would call for daily exercises in one or the 
other of the subjects. 

The second plan is not as economical as the regular one 
or the first one given above, and should not have general 
adoption. The other plans permit entrance to Year III 
with advanced standing in two traditional high school sub- 
jects, mathematics and either French or agriculture. This 
plan permits such advanced standing only in mathematics. 

The Federal law through the Smith-Hughes fund makes 
fundamental requirements as given below and allows 
schools which fulfill the requirements to be reimbursed in 
part for expense incurred. 

(a) Pupils taking subsidized courses must be fourteen 
years old or over, hence, as ages average in the public 
school, must be at least in the ninth grade. 

(b) Schools must be in session twenty-five hours per 
week, which is interpreted to mean five full hours of reci- 
tation, laboratory or field work per day for five days in the 
week. 

(c) One-half of the pupil's time, that is, twelve and one- 
half hours per week, must be devoted to agriculture and 
related subjects. The other twelve and one-half hours 
may be devoted to non-related subjects such as English, 
history, mathematics, science, modern languages, etc. 

Schools which do not care to qualify for Smith-Hughes 
aid may present an agricultural curriculum which fully 
meets the requirements given in Chapter I of Part I of 
this program. It must present at least four full units in 
agriculture together with one or two courses in farm wood 
and iron work. 

The Smith-Hughes Act is distinctly a piece of vocational 
legislation, designed to fit young men for life on a farm or 
for further education in agricultural colleges. This does not 
mean a narrow or a one-sided education, for the law allows, 
and New Hampshire practice requires, that approximately 
one-half of the high school curriculum in agriculture shall 
be given to subjects that are commonly accepted as an es- 



208 

sential background to good citizenship. More than this, 
the study of agriculture itself, its processes, related sci- 
ences and, in particular, its history are quite as ''cultural" 
as are the records of villainous old despots who have 
drenched the earth with blood and whose doings have con- 
stituted a considerable part of the Ancient History taught. 
Indeed, the history of civilization is more accurately read 
in the study of agricultural development than in any other 
known record. The courses in agriculture take the pupil 
back into the middle period of barbarism and lead him on 
through a path of constructiveness rather than destructive- 
ness to the most recent time and culminate with the 
triumph of the art of modern agriculture in the produc- 
tion of food sufficient to feed the world. Agriculture is 
preeminently the occupation which makes for peace and 
develops resourcefulness. 

A systematic, even though brief and incomplete, story 
of man's accomplishment in the field of agriculture must 
result in a more liberal attitude of mind towards present- 
day industrial problems and must tend to develop citizens 
capable of participation in their solution. 

All teachers in agriculture and all teachers responsible 
for the garden work of Years I-IV should study with care 
Circular No. 94. , 

HORTICULTURE AND SOIL STUDY III. 

Aim. 

This course aims to teach the practice of horticulture 
(see definitions on page 1, Institute Circular, Series 1915- 
16, No 46). The soil study of this year is largely prelim- 
inary and more or less incidental. Gardening is the chief 
business of the year. The garden must be in size worth 
while, and in crops be suited to the needs of the locality. 
It must be worked out in plan in the classroom and planted 
by the pupil under the teacher's supervision. A home 
project worthy of recognition must, if the season is favor- 
able, yield a crop value of at least seventy-five dollars. 



standards. 



209 



SIZE OP PROJECT. 



No garden less than seventy -five by one hundred and fifty 
feet (about one-quarter acre) can be accepted as satisfac- 
tory. 



TIME APPORTIONMENT. 





Classroom 
"Recitations." 


Laboratory work 
preparatory or 
supplementary 
to field work. 


Field excursions, 

field project work 

and outside 

investigation. 


Fall Term. 
Winter Term. 
Spring Term. 


Not more than 15%. 

" 75%. 

' 15%. 


Not more than 10%. 
Not less than 25%. 

Both con 

859' 


Not less than 75%. 

Included in labora- 
tory time, 
ibined, 

3- 



Suggestions and Bibliography. 
See under next course. 



WOOD AND IRON WORK III AND IV. 



Aim. 



To give boys sufficient experience in practical work in 
wood and iron so that they can do all of the com- 
mon jobs of construction and repairs occurring on the 
farm in the ordinary course of farm administration. 

In general, this consists of carpenter work, repairs on 
farm tools and machinery, simple forms for concrete con- 
struction, cabinet work in the way of repairs and in par- 
ticular, sufficient blacksmithing to sharpen and re-set 
horse shoes, mend chains, sharpen drills, etc. 

The old-time farmer knew how to turn his hand to a 
multitude of constructive processes from whittling a "bow 
pin" to adzing an ox yoke. The old-time farmer's boy 
learned to do these things under his father's direction. 
These experiences, involving simple hand tools and neces- 
sitating the exercise of much ingenuity as ways and means 



14 



210 

had to be discovered and devised to meet new conditions, 
were in fact the most effective factors in the education of 
the farm-reared boy of a century ago and they account 
for the acknowledged capacity of the great industrial pio- 
neers who laid the foundations for our national success in 
business enterprises. The aim of the school should be to 
develop similar constructive effectiveness in both boys 
and girls of the present day. The real school workshop 
where useful things are made is the one place where "in- 
ventiveness" and the power to solve whatever mechanical 
problem arises by means of such tools and materials as are 
available, can be taught, through practice, at a time when 
pupils are receptive to such instruction. 

Standards. 

Two unit courses in shop, wood and iron work are pro- 
posed, but are here discussed together since one year 
should not be given to wood and one to iron. See under 
suggestions. 

Standards are best expressed negatively for these 
courses. These courses should have absolutely no trace of 
either the "joints" and formal "exercises" of the obsolete 
Russian manual training system or of the diminutive 
"models" of the original Sloyd system. 

Again pupils should not build so-called model farm 
buildings to a scale of one-eighth full size. Such work is 
manifestly make-believe and belongs to the realm of Gul- 
liver's Travels. 

On the positive side it may be stated that no work should 
be done which is not a part of some project which the pupil 
knows is useful and which he knows is to be used on the 
farm, in the home or in and about the school. 

There is no education in merely making shavings and 
sawdust for the sake of getting accustomed to the use of a 
plane or saw. There is education, however, in getting the 
"hang" of a plane or saw while making a useful thing 
that the pupil knows is needed. 



211 



Suggestions. 

There is no excuse for treating wood working and iron 
working as separate courses so far as time is concerned. 
If a boy needs to put a new spoke into the wheel of a 
decrepit wheelbarrow and the tire needs to be made shorter 
and re-set, it is just the time to drop the spokeshave and 
chisel and fire up the forge. If he has made a new wood 
for a whippletree today, then tomorrow is his day for put- 
ing on the irons. 

Naturally the first year 's work lays the stress on wood- 
working while the second year gives larger emphasis to the 
iron work. 

The following projects are suggested as typical of many 
which the successful teacher by personal conferences with 
pupils and parents will disdern to be actually needed at the 
homes. The very best evidence of a well-conducted course 
is the fact that each pupil has a different project 
meeting the peculiar needs at his home and the worst pos- 
sible condition is when the inspector finds each pupil work- 
ing on a predetermined series of "models" designed to 
give an alleged "sequence" either of processes, or tools, or 
both. 

WORK IN WOOD. 

Neck yoke, spreader, evener, whippletrees, wagon tongue, 
wagon or sleigh shaft or cross piece, wagon body, cart body, 
wheelbarrow, smoothing harrow frame, cultivator frame, 
nest boxes, trap nests, dry-mash hoppers, brooders, feed 
boxes, drinking fountains, milking stools, axe handle, cant- 
hook wood, wagon jack, apple heading press, apple and 
potato sorter, bean sorter, school exhibit boxes, seed testing 
devices, window boxes, cold frame or hot bed accessories, 
flats for transplanting, tomato racks, mosquito screen 
frames, book racks, tables, bins, and an interminable line 
of minor repairs at home and in the school. 



212 

WORK IN IRON. 

Any and all ironing which is part of any project in 
woodwork. In addition, heading and threading bolts, and 
tapping nuts for special uses, mending chains, putting 
rings and hooks on chains, recalking horse shoes, welding 
broken rods, welding iron or steel, or a combination of the 
two, sharpening or even ''new steeling" a plow coulter, 
making a grab-hook for a chain, making bridle chain for 
a sled or bridle shoe for a wagon, forging and tempering 
cold chisels, punches, stone drills, making a knife blade, 
upsetting an axe,' drawing out smoothing harrow teeth, etc. 

Quite likely it will prove that the projects omitted from 
this list are of more importance than those given. No 
school will follow any pre-arranged list item by item, for 
farm equipment upkeep follows no law and breakage and 
new needs are not in alphabetical order. 

The real situation may be summed up as follows: (a) 
find out what is most needed on the farm from which any 
pupil comes, (b) together with the pupil and, if possible, 
the parent talk over the best way of supplying the need, 
and (e) go directly and persistently to the task of doing 
the job. 

In terms of pedagogy, a, b, and c are the impression, or- 
ganization, and expression of the deformalized formal 
steps in teaching. (See Appendix B.) 

Bibliography for courses in Year III. 

Pedagogical Helps and Suggestions as to Methods for 
Courses in Year III. 

Institute Circular ^ . ,, t 1 1 School 

^.-r o( • -r. Especially applicable 

No. Series Pages ^ ^ rr Year 

14 1913-14 lto4 General All 

16 1913-14 1 Horticulture III 

17 1913-14 lto3 Horticulture III 

18 1913-14 1 to 2 Horticulture & Field Crops III-IV 



213 



19 


1913-14 


lto2 


Horticulture & Field 


Crops III 


6 


1914-15 


lto2 


Horticulture 


III 


7 


1914-15 


lto2 


Seed Study 


IV 


20 


1914-15 


2 to 3 


General 




21 


1914-15 


2 to 5 


Field Crops 


IV 


46 


1915-16 


lto3 


Horticulture & Soil Study III 


47 


1915-16 


4 


Field Crops 


IV 


56 


1915-16 


9 to 14 


General 


All 


17 


1913-14 


4 to 14 


Gardening 


III 


6 


1914-15 


2 to 6 


Orcharding 


III 


17 


1914-15 


lto6 


Tomato Projects 


III 


46 


1915-16 


ltol3 


Horticulture in part 


III 


56 


1915-16 


ltol6 


Horticulture in part 


III 


83 


1917-18 


3 to 18 


Horticulture 


III 



Of these numbers, 56 and 83 are perhaps the most im- 
portant so far as the horticultural element in the work of 
Year III is concerned, but the others are not to be ne- 
glected in the work of Year III. 

The teacher is advised to own and make constant use of 
G. Stanley Hall's rather expensive but well-nigh indis- 
pensable two-volume work, ''Adolescence." It is an in- 
exhaustible pedagogical gold mine, but it is not to be read 
page after page throughout its 1400 pages. It is a 
reference book for teachers, who desire to become "ar- 
tists rather than artisans." Its index is very complete. 
Chapter I, Growth in Height and Weight; Chapter III, 
Growth of Motor Power and Function ; Chapter XII, Ado- 
lescent Feelings Toward Nature, etc. ; Chapter XVI, In- 
tellectual Development and Education, are particularly 
helpful in lifting school men and women out of the deep 
rut of formalism. These should be read and re-read many 
times. The greatest drag on educational progress consists 
in the fact that teachers and school administrators fail to 
study the literature of their profession. Hall's writings 
tend strongly to break up mental adhesion and clear the 
way for new, healthy growth and function. 



214 

FIELD CROPS AND SOIL STUDY IV. 



The Aim. 



There is only one aim here, namely, the production of 
better crops of the standard grains, grasses, vegetables, etc., 
than the average of the best farmers in the region. If the 
school fails to accomplish this the teacher is unequal to 
the occasion and the future of agricultural practice in that 
community is not likely to be much, if any, improved by 
making the study of agriculture a part of the school pro- 
gram. 

Science applied to agriculture is either effective, or it 
is not. The higher institutions teaching agriculture either 
equip their graduates to produce better results in field and 
barn, or they do not. If they do, then the teacher of agri- 
culture in the secondary school can demonstrate a better 
practice of the art of farming than that of the average 
farmer, and if he can do this himself, he must be able to 
get his knowledge of how to do it across to his pupils, or he 
is a. failure as a teacher. If he is competent both as a 
practitioner of a better type of farming and as a teacher, 
then his pupils on an average must reflect his competency 
in the superiority of their projects in field crops. The 
logic, the common sense, and the justice of this is self evi- 
dent and the success and permanence of agricultural 
education in secondary schools rests upon the outcome as 
shown by quantity, quality, and economy of crop produc- 
tion through the medium of the home project. 

Let no teacher deceive himself on this point: brilliant 
classroom work which fails to function in larger crops of 
better quality than those produced without the aid of such 
instruction, will never stand the acid test of public opinion 
for any great length of time, and it never ought to do so. 

Standards. 

The minimum size of field crop project is one-half acre 
and a reasonable expectation is that very few pupils will 



215 

have less than three-fourths of an acre while at least half 
of the class will have a full acre. 

On the side of "labor income" a sophomore boy well 
instructed and properly supervised with a fair season, 
ought to realize not less than $100 for his home project 
work in field crops, that is his personal income after pay- 
ing for seed, fertilizers, team hire, etc., ought to amount 
to the sum named. 

It may happen, however, in common with other farm 
enterprises in the locality, that the pupil's income is re- 
duced to zero by frost, drought, or other uncontrollable in- 
fluences, for these are hazards to which farming is unfor- 
tunately exposed. 

There is another standard which inspectors will report 
on but which is hard to state in definite terms. It is the 
standard of a reasonably clean culture. This means com- 
parative freedom from weeds and grass, and proper care of 
the crop at all stages of growth. A potato or corn field 
infested with ragweed or kale is not "reasonably clean," 
but an oat field with considerable kale going to seed is un- 
avoidable on many farms. 

Corn, beans, potatoes, etc., with many missing hills show 
either lack of proper testing of seed, or lack of vigilance 
when the crop was first cultivated, for at that time re- 
planting was possible. 

Suffgesti&ns. 

Well-prepared land, carefully planted with tested seed, 
and intelligently fertilized either with manure or chemical 
fertilizers, or both, and the crop frequently cultivated and 
occasionally hand hoed, will go a long way toward insuring 
a good crop, but there are pests to fight, dry seasons to 
combat by up-to-date soil cultivation. A potato crop may 
be lost for lack of spraying at a critical date. Close fol- 
lowing of the weather condition may enable the wide- 
awake boy to shock his corn and save it from frost. It is 
in these exceptional circumstances that the real teacher 



216 

and the real pupil win out where the thoughtless and care- 
less fail. 



Bibliography 








Institute Circular. 






No. Series 


Pages 


Dealing with 


Year 


14 1913-14 


5 to 22 


Fertilization 


IV 


18 1913-14 




Injurious insects 


III-IV 


19 1913-14 




Plant diseases 


III-IV 


21 1914-15 


6 to 22 


Crop 


IV 


47 1915-16 


lto9 


Field crops 


IV 


56 1915-16 




Field projects 


IV 


7 1914-15 


4 to 13 


Soil types, etc. 


III-IV 


46 1915-16 


5 to 7 


Soil physics 


IV 


83 1917-18 


6 to 7 


Soil types 


III 



No. 56 is the most important circular of the series so far 
as presenting a plan for real projects is concerned and 
teachers must make this and No. 21 basic in organizing the 
classroom and field work of the field crop course. 

The study of soils is made to cover two years but is 
largely incidental to the courses in horticulture and field 
crops. The subject for Year III is to be handled in a very 
general way, getting the pupil familiar with the two or 
three types of arable soil most common in the vicinity of 
the school. It is the time to increase the pupil's ability to 
identify in the field the soil with which farmers are deal- 
ing. 

In Year IV, however, there should be considerable prac- 
tical laboratory investigation and demonstration of the 
physical properties of soils. There is little occasion for 
high school laboratory work on the chemistry of soils for 
the reason that chemistry gives us very meagre information 
as to the crop-producing capacity of a soil. 

Physical properties are of paramount importance so far 
as laboratory demonstrations go. The one practical con- 
tribution that chemistry can make is the determination of 



217 

acidity and this is practiced only when there is a rational 
interpretation of the result. (See circulars of the New 
Jersey Experiment Station.) 

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY V. 

The Aim. 

To make the pupil familiar with feeds and feeding, and 
with breeds and breeding, (a) by means of actual feeding 
projects with poultry, swine, cows, sheep, etc., (b) by ex- 
cursions to farms or fairs where standard animals may be 
seen and studied, (c) by scoring according to accepted 
methods whereby special points of merit are specifically 
seen and evaluated and breed types learned. 

Standards. 

There must be home projects of sufficient size to make 
possible a labor income of $100 or more. This means, at 
least, fifty hens, ten sheep, a half dozen pigs or more, or 
a pair of steers or a heifer or two. 

It all depends upon how the project is managed, how- 
ever, for pigs carelessly fed, or hens neglected, may easily 
result in loss rather than gain. 

Whatever the financial result may be there is a quality 
standard which means much even if there is little money 
gain. "Well-kept farm animals, clean and healthy, are a 
means of education to any boy. To care for and think 
about, and kindly treat a domesticated animal is to culti- 
vate a wholesome mental attitude not alone towards these 
animals but towards the whole world of living things in- 
cluding mankind. A child with a pet animal or a youth 
with a useful farm animal means a man with right think- 
ing along humane lines. It means human living under 
hygienic conditions if the health of the stock has been 
thought about. 

Inspectors will look quite as carefully into the conditions 
under which animal husbandry projects are carried on as 
intd the matter of financial gain. A financially profitable 



218 

project conducted under unhygienic conditions or with 
little regard to the comfort of the animal, ought to be less 
creditable to a pupil than a project showing a much smaller 
profit but where the health and comfort of the animal has 
been well provided for. 

Suggestions. 

Animal husbandry projects ought to be continuous 
through the year V and VI, that is, a project with hens, 
sheep, swine, cows, etc., should not be started and contin- 
ued for a few months to be abandoned as are courses in 
geometry, or Latin, or literature, but should become a part 
of the regular home work of the pupil, especially if the 
project is successful. A pig project may start with one 
brood sow, but it ought not to end there. There should be 
breeding, feeding, and selling, and incidental to this are 
such practical problems as butchering, smoking bacon, 
hams, and shoulders, salting down the fat parts, rendering 
lard, making sausage, etc. All of this is reasonably to be 
expected of an adequate course in agriculture if such a 
course is to become a factor in improving the practice of 
farming. For additional suggestions study carefully Cir- 
cular No. 56, pp. 7 to 16. 

Bibliography. 

Institute Circular. 
No. Series Pages Dealing with Year 

56 1915-16 8 A general plan V 

72 1916-17 3 to 9 Henhouse construction V 

FARM ENGINEERING V. (PIRST HALF YEAR.) 

Aim. 

This course aims to give the pupil actual experience in 
measuring, computing, drawing maps and plans, preparing 
schedules of material and specifications for the numerous 



219 

construction projects involved in farm organization and 
management. 

The old-time courses in land surveying and leveling, 
which some of the academies of forty years ago gave, came 
quite as near being courses in applied mathematics as 
many of the recent efforts in that direction. Today boys 
and girls in secondary schools will profit when the com- 
pass, plane-table, level and transit give real meaning to 
angles and triangles, and when a few measurements which 
can be made are by mathematical computation made to 
yield yet other dimensions which are inaccessible. 

Arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry and algebra are all 
made use of in an effective way wherever surveying is 
rationally taught. 

The subject is vocational in that it deals with the every- 
day needs of farm practice as lines are run, areas com- 
puted, maps made, levels determined and grades estab- 
lished. It is educational in a general sense because it 
makes the formal mathematical sciences such as trigo- 
nometry, geometry, algebra, etc., understandable from their 
concrete applied side. In fact, about the only curricula in 
the secondary schools which make possible a truly peda- 
gogical procedure in mathematics are those dealing with 
agriculture and mechanic arts. 

Standards. 

The course in land surveying must include chain or 
tape determination of areas, plane-table traversing, map- 
ping and computations, compass and chain surveying, lev- 
eling and, when instruments can be had, transit surveying. 

It is advised that each pupil be required to construct 
for himself (1) a substantial plane-table with small com- 
pass inset and a sturdy tripod on which to mount it; (2) 
a simple water level or a spirit level with suitable sight, a 
leveling rod and range rods. These projects can be made a 
part of the wood and iron work courses if other construe- 



220 

tion projects run short or they can be planned and super- 
vised by the teacher but made as extra home or school shop 
work. 

Each pupil must make a survey, either chain, compass or 
plane-table, of his home farm or of some farm that is for 
sale and compute the area, map its division such as fields, 
pasture, forest area, etc., this to be a part of the farm or- 
ganization course or possibly of the farm management 
course if this seems better. 

The class must be taught to compute, areas both by trian- 
gulation and by traverse table computation, the latter, of 
course, when compass or plane-table is used. 

There are many useful problems in dividing land up 
into proportionate parts. Some of these may be worked 
out. 

Each class must be given an opportunity to work out one 
good project in leveling either to establish grades for 
drainage or to determine possibilities of gravity water sup- 
ply. These cannot be book problems but must be based on 
an actual survey on some farm where such work is actually 
needed, even though it is not likely to be carried out at 
present. There are interesting problems connected 
with the magnetic needle and its variations, as well as with 
the establishment of a true meridian at any place. Old 
deeds, the date of whose survey is known, can often be 
found and courses determined from which the change in 
the magnetic meridian can be discovered. 

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 

Each class must have an opportunity for making plans, 
constructing forms and building some worth while project 
in concrete. 

There is no place here for the diminutive, make-believe 
projects. Every community is in need of sidewalks, curb- 
stones, watering troughs, steps to public buildings, etc., 
and will usually provide the raw material if the teachers 
and class will do the constructing. 



221 

Most schoolhouses are in need of basement floors, vaults, 
retaining wells, steps, fence posts, etc., and there are few 
farms from which pupils come which do not need a water- 
ing trough, septic tank, silo foundation or some other con- 
venience into which concrete enters. The live teacher and 
live class will find plenty of chance for making real things 
rather than to construct "models" of bridges, troughs, 
fence posts, tanks, etc., on a one-eighth scale. 

It is quite possible for some schools to make forms for 
concrete block making and to make a supply of blocks for 
some purpose such as a blacksmith shop or the underpin- 
ning for a work shop. 

Mixing concrete is an art dependent on some very defi- 
nite principles of science and the difference between good, 
durable work and work that is unsatisfactory depends 
largely upon three factors: (1) the kind of material used, 

(2) the proportion in which the materials are used, and 

(3) the skill with which these materials are mixed and 
rammed into the forms. The pupil should go out from 
this course knowing the why and how of the process well 
enough to take charge of and turn out a good job. 

MISCELLANEOUS OPPORTUNITIES. 

Measuring and computing wood, lumber, standing tim- 
ber, hay, coal, ensilage, earth excavation, fills, establishing 
road grades, etc. 

Suggestions. 

In addition to what has been said it is well to point out 
that the old-time course in mensuration which many of us 
struggled with in Greenleaf's National Arithmetic was a 
course in applied mathematics just such as is contemplated 
here except that the old course had the data all given in the 
problems presented. This course involves many of the 
same computations but it insists upon making the problems 
real and requires the pupil not only to measure and esti- 



222 

mate but also to test the results of his computations, so far 
as possible, by actually doing things. The old way was 
chiefly a matter of intellectual accomplishment. The new 
adds the motor element of hand work, of construction, of 
utility. The former had no obvious relation to human 
needs, the latter makes human well-being fundamental. 

The old plan ended for the most part with some mem- 
orized rules and certain skill in the use of figures. The 
new starts with facts obtained first-hand and gives the 
pupil a chance to know why he figures on 62^^ pounds of 
water per cubic foot, or 550 cubic feet of hay per ton, 
etc., and it clinches the knowledge thus discovered by in- 
corporating the result in the muscles as well as the brain. 
Psychologically, we must remember that motor habits per- 
sist long after the mental factor which contributed towards 
the habit has faded past recall and equally important is 
the fact that the motor habit has the power of reviving 
the faded mental factor. 

FARM MACHINERY V. (SECOND HALF YEAR.) 

Aim. 

This is a very practical course designed to familiarize 
the pupil with the tools and mechanisms found on a mod- 
ern farm. 

It involves three factors : ( 1 ) a study of actual machines 
in operation to see what they are designed to accomplish 
and how well they are doing the work; (2) a study of the 
various adjustments by means of which the character, 
quantity and quality of work performed is varied to meet 
differing conditions; (3) the discovery of the most common 
defects and failures due to wrong adjustment, weakness, 
etc., to see what precautions are necessary to guard against 
these failures and what must be done to restore worn parts. 

The course should cover every device commonly used on 
the farms in the region about the school from simple ma- 
chines like the cultivator or corn planter to the most com- 



223 

plicated such as cream separator, threshing machine and 
tractor. 

The pupil must know by experience how to adjust and 
prove the rate of seeding of hill, drill or broadcast seeders ; 
must be able to control the amount of fertilizer to be dis- 
tributed ; must know how to determine the speed of 
threshers, cream separators, grinding mills, saws, etc., and 
be able to control the speed of gas engines or other motors. 

The vagaries of automobiles, so far as human wisdom 
permits, should be inquired into and the processes involved 
in the ordinary up-keep of valves, cylinders, bearings, bat- 
teries of the gasoline motor should be learned through 
actual experience supplemented by verbal or written in- 
struction. 

The major aim must be to instruct pupils as to reason- 
able care of farm machinery : how and when to oil, take up 
wear, babbitt boxes, clean, paint, etc. 

It is probable that the depreciation of farm tools when 
not in use is nearly as great as when in use, partly because 
many machines are used only a few days per year but 
more because of the condition in which the machine is put 
away or unfavorable surroundings where it is stored. 

Standards. 

Each class must study in detail and first-hand such tools 
under the following heads as are in use on the farms in the 
country. 

A. Plows, walking, sulky and tractor, 

B. Harrows, disk, cutaway, spring tooth, acme, smooth- 

ing, etc. 

C. Seeders, broadcast, drill, hill, check-row. 

f 

D. Fertilizer Distributors, manure spreader, lime 

spreader, etc. 

E. Cultivators, Planet, Jr., "fourteen" toothy two-horse, 

two-row. 



224 

F. Harvesting Machines, mowing machine, reaper, 

thresher, corn binder, ensilage cutter, potato dig- 
ger, corn husker, hay rake, hay loader, horse fork, 

G. Power Generators, gasoline or kerosene engines, 

steam engines, electric motor, tractor, water mo- 
tor. 

H. Transportation, etc., automobile, truck, farm wagon. 

I. Electric lighting and water pumping outfits. 

J. Dairy Devices, milking machine, separator, churn, 
butter worker, milk bottler, cheese-making equip- 
ment. 

Suggestions. 

The local farm machinery agent is a valuable man to 
cooperate with. A half day spent in actual work helping 
to set up a variety of machines and a study of the cata- 
logues and instructions for assembling these will give a 
greater knowledge than weeks spent in studying about ma- 
chines in general. 

How are the parts assembled ? How held together ? 
"What safeguards to prevent nuts becoming loose? These 
are the things one needs to know in selecting machinery. 

The draft of machines varies considerably and often 
the farmer is overloading his team without knowing it. 
Does the plow draw harder than the disk harrow? 

How does the biggest load of hay compare, as a load for 
a pair of horses, with a cord of green wood ? 

Does a mowing machine require as much power to oper- 
ate it as does a spring-tooth harrow ? 

A clevis dynamometer as part of the equipment of an 
agricultural school is needed in answering such questions. 

FARM ORGANIZATION VI. (FIRST HALF YEAR.) 

The Aim. 

The course in farm organization is a half-year course 
and must be kept distinct from the course in farm man- 



225 

agement. The two make up a year's work but are not to be 
given combined. 

This course in farm organization is best planned when 
the teacher has in mind the problems which would con- 
front a young man about to embark in the business of 
farming. It involves all of the planning incident to buy- 
ing a farm, remodeling its buildings, or building new, 
deciding upon the type of farming best for the given sit- 
uation, studying the land, outlining a suitable rotation of 
crops, selecting farm stock, machinery, seed and fertilizers, 
and deciding upon the amount of help necessary to run the 
enterprise when the time comes. In short, it is concerned 
with every detail involved in getting the outfit selected and 
in shape to be operated. 

This will be best accomplished by requiring each pupil 
to assume as his particular project the task of organizing 
such a farm as he would like to own and manage, keeping 
the magnitude of the enterprise within such reasonable 
limit as a moderate capital of say two or three thousand 
dollars would warrant. In most cases it will be best to 
have the pupil deal with the re-organizati'on of the farm 
oh which he lives, or study the condition on some farm 
nearby which is for sale. 

Standards. 

The pupil must be led to consider himself as actually 
entering into the real task of putting such farm into shape 
to be farmed as he would do it. 

(a) There must be a map of an actual farm that the 
pupil is studying. (This is work for the farm engineering 
class to take up at the very start of that course. ) The fields, 
pastures, needed drains, etc., must be shown on the map. 

(b) There must be measurements made and a plan of, 
the existing building drawn to scale. Upon this plan the 
work of remodeling must be based. Estimates of cost must 
be made and verified as far as possible. 



226 

(c) The type of farming must be worked out in general 
for tools and equipment, rotation of crops, plan of build- 
ings, etc., all are affected to some extent by the kind of 
farming proposed. 

(d) The equipment must be selected, not from a text- 
book, but from the farm machinery dealer, or from cata- 
logues of manufacturers. Costs must be determined. 

(e) The kind and amount of farm animals proposed, 
and the probable cost must be decided upon. 

(f) There must be a preliminary study of market, ship- 
ping facilities, roads, etc., as a basis for an intelligent 
choice of the kinds of farming. 

Inspectors will call for plans, estimates, maps and writ- 
ten papers covering the divisions above outlined and will 
require pupil to show notebooks in which they have re- 
corded the data they have collected. 

Suggestions. 

Make the planning as real as possible by requiring each 
pupil to collect information from local farms, from dealers 
in equipment, from carpenters, masons, etc. 

Do not let the pupils spend time on planning and fur- 
nishing the house except so far as parts of it relate to the 
man's part of management. 

Domestic arts classes cover the home planning and the 
teacher of agriculture should work with the teacher of 
domestic arts thus getting both a farm and a home organ- 
ized. 

It will be seen that this course reviews all of the pre- 
ceding courses; for example, that on soils, horticulture, 
field crops, animal husbandry, forestry, farm engineering, 
farm machinery, etc. 

Bihliograpky. 

There is a vast amount of material available and for- 
tunately it has not been formalized, peptonized and devi- 



227 

talized by textbook makers. It is found in catalogues of 
farm machinery and seed catalogues ; in agricultural mag- 
azines and papers; in bulletins and reports of experiment 
stations and in agricultural encyclopedias and reference 
books. 

Better than this, just what is needed by these boys is 
known by scores of good farmers in the region about the 
school. 

Every agricultural fair has valuable exhibits of almost 
everything essential to the farm, cattle, crops, tools, trac- 
tors, fertilizers, feed, etc. 

The Commissioner of Agriculture for New Hampshire 
has reports and the Deputy Commissioner issues market 
letters and both will gladly answer any reasonable number 
of questions which agricultural pupils may ask. 

The world is so full of facts and figures relative to the 
topics of this course that it is a pedagogical sin to turn to 
the index of a textbook to determine whether it is profitable 
to grow potatoes in Coos County or to sell milk in Concord. 

This course to be worth while must be a project course. 
Therefore, half of the time devoted to it should be spent 
in gathering facts and opinions, inspecting farms, herds, 
tools and buildings, making approximate surveys of fields 
or measurements of farm buildings, drawing plans and 
maps, making out schedules of lumber needed for repairs 
or for new construction. 

The other half should be spent in lively discussions of 
the facts and figures brought in by the class, arguments 
as to proposed plans, etc. 

Topics may be assigned whenever need arises but to 
debase this course to the level of eut-and-dried general 
classroom work divorced for the most part from anything 
specific and personal and practical, is to defeat its purpose 
entirely and it would better not be given at all. 



228 

FARM MANAGEMENT VI. (SECOND HALF YEAR.) 

The Aim. 

This course takes up the work where farm organization 
ends and involves the idea of actually running the same 
farm that has been organized. 

Each pupil will have his own problems to solve and the 
success of his solution will be determined largely by the 
reasonableness of his estimated expenses and probable in- 
come. 

Each pupil must endeavor to put himself into the posi- 
tion of the owner and manager of such a farm as he has 
organized and should draw as many of his facts and figures 
from his own home experience or from tlie experience of 
the best farmers in his neighborhood as possible. 

If he has had a successful animal husbandry project he 
can use this experience. If he knows of successful farmers 
near by, he can get much valuable data from them as to 
labor cost for farm operation, yields of crops, value of 
products, etc. 

One of the very large factors in a successful farm enter- 
prise is a rational rotation of crops suited to the given soil 
and meeting the needs of the particular type of farming 
proposed. 

The farm map should definitely show how and when this 
rotation is to be managed and should cover years enough to 
meet the needs of the farm. 

Standards. 

Each pupil must keep good, readable notes giving the 
facts he has gathered up and their sources. 

He must write up the reasons for his proposed crop rota- 
tion and set forth his expectations as to expenses and in- 
come. 

There should be in permanent shape for inspection at 
any time, as the work progresses, notebooks giving the 



229 

common per acre yield of the standard crops he is to raise 
and a detailed statement as to how he proposes to improve 
the fertility of his land or improve his farm animals or get 
better strains of seed. 

There must be at least one good report of the way the 
pupil would market his products. 

Each pupil must keep a set of farm accounts along with 
his farm management project. The entries must be those 
decided upon as representing reasonable expenses and in- 
come for the operations involved. Farm account keeping 
should be in very simple form such in fact as could be kept 
by every farmer without involving too much detail. 

Each pupil will be required to carefully study and write 
one essay on a subject to be selected from the following 
list: 

The farmer's interest in good roads. 
Local taxation of farms as compared with other busi- 
nesses. 

The Grange as a help to the farmer. 

How to improve a herd of cows. 

Tuberculosis and how to guard against it. 

Does the Tariff favor or injure the farmer? 

Does milk selling pay? 

What crop produces the most profitable fodder for cows ? 

Is poultry farming profitable? 

Suggestions and Bibliography. 
See course in Farm Organization. 

ROAD BUILDING VI. ( ONE-HALF YExiR.) 

The day of irresponsible road .repairing is rapidly pass- 
ing and a new order of intelligent effort is beginning to 
show results in the form of highways over which it is rea- 
sonably comfortable to ride and whose surface and grades 
make it possible to draw much larger loads of farm prod- 
ucts and merchandise. 



230 

The science and art of the highway engineer has brought 
about some very substantial results but there is yet, in 
cities and villages, as well as small towns, much of the 
old wasteful, hopelessly unintelligent repair work which 
year after year scrapes mud from the gutters into the road- 
waj^ and piles dirt and turf over rocks. 

Aim. 

i 

A course in road building in the high school is justified 
on the well-known principle that habits, good or bad, are 
easiest formed and most persistent when acquired during 
the mid-adolescent years from fifteen to eighteen. 

If at this time boys see and take part in the old-time 
annual riot of road repairing, so called, they will strongly 
tend towards perpetuating the methods with which they 
are familiar, but if the public school can, by an appeal to 
their developing intelligence show that heaping sods and 
dust in the roadway is not making a road, or that dumping 
a load of sand in a hole from which standing water cannot 
escape is not permanently overcoming the difficulty, or 
that leaving side ditches without an outlet for the water 
they collect is not providing drainage, — if the school can 
get these facts and others home to the receptive mind of 
the boy, it will strongly tend to discount the influence of 
the bad practice he sees about him. 

The aim, then, is to show the horrible examples of "road 
fixing" that are still too prevalent; to examine roads con- 
structed by competent engineers; to point out the differ- 
ences between good and bad roads, and to discover the engi- 
neering process by which satisfactory roads are built. 

The course must acquaint the pupil with the local road 
building material and show how it ought to be combined to 
produce good gravel roads, for these will always be the 
kind of rural road which can be afforded. 

The cost of building and maintaining must be investi- 
gated: (a) from local construction; (b) from the reports 
of the State Highway Commission; (c) from other engi- 



231 

neering sources. At the same time there must be a reason- 
able interpretation of the town's ability to bear tax burden 
so that plans may be worked out for a general system of 
permanent highway improvement. The state has plans for 
the progressive construction of a series of improved high- 
ways and main crossroads. In a similar way the class 
should chart all roads of the town and devise plans for the 
systematic improvement of the main thoroughfares and 
most needed highways. 

Actual methods of road construction, improvement and 
upkeep must be made evident to the class by numerous 
excursions to places where work is being properly done 
under the direction of engineers or road builders. 

Standards. 

The class must make surveys and establish grades figur- 
ing cuts, fills, etc., and make plans for the improvement 
of at least one-fourth mile of road near to the school. It 
will be best to take some road that is likely in the near 
future to be improved. It may be possible through coop- 
eration with local or state road agents or engineers to have 
this work of the class become a part of the plan of work 
adopted by the town, and if so, the school will have become 
a real factor in public improvement as should be the case. 

Each pupil should be given as a definite problem, a piece 
of road on which he is to report from time to time relative 
to work needed to keep it in good order thereby showing to 
the class the need of constant inspection and timely repairs 
as a matter of economy. 

Suggestions. 

If possible make arrangements with the highway author- 
ities so that the class may actually take charge of a definite 
section of road near the school, doing all of the work of 
improving and keeping it in repair year after year, the 
town or city of course furnishing material and teams. A 
quarter or half mile is probably a desirable project. 



232 i 

BihUography. 

The State Highway Commission Reports and Bulletins. 

National publications of various kinds. 

Any good reference book on road building. 

Note: The best lessons, however, are object lessons of 
good, bad and indifferent roads and an on-the-spot discus- 
sion of their differences. 

FORESTRY VI. (SECOND HALF YEAR.) 

Aim. 

The aim is to encourage pupils to look upon the forests 
as an important part of the farm to be intelligently han- 
dled, having proper regard to its preservation and use. 

The course must be made practical by giving each pupil, 
if possible, an actual project in reforesting or thinning or 
otherwise improving forest areas. 

Standards. 

The class must study the problem of seed collection and 
get samples of seeds from each of the important forest 
trees in the region. It may be possible to collect some of 
these in quantity sufficient to be of commercial value or at 
least enough to test for germination and perhaps raise a 
few seedlings. 

The process of setting out seedling pines must be taught 
by practice, for on almost every farm there is land which 
ought to be producing timber, and pines set out by high 
school pupils will be large enough to convert into lumber 
before the pupil is fifty years old. A little foresight and 
assistance may very well lay a foundation for a substantial 
income later in life. Many New Hampshire towns at 
small expense can buy some poor farm on which the build- 
ings have been burned. The class could easily reforest with 
young pines, an acre a year. The care of these pines and 
of other wood growth, would furnish the class with a field 



233 

for action. If this plan were continued for a series of 
years the income from the town forests would aid mate- 
rially in the support of the schools. 

Each pupil §hould be shown how the home wood lot can 
be economically managed or a lumber lot thinned and im- 
proved. 

There should be some practical work in scaling logs and 
in estimating standing timber. 

Brief investigation of the kinds of timber in local forests 
and the rate of growth of each kind with some actual de- 
termination of the age of trees, etc., are necessary in 
this course. 

Suggestions. 

There is no textbook that can be made the basis of this 
course. It is a new and rapidly developing subject in this 
country and the reports and bulletins of State and National 
boards, bureaus and commissions contain all the reference 
material needed, if the teacher works out a practical list 
of topics for investigation. 

Eeference Books in Agriculture. 

GENERAL. 

The Farmer 's Cyclopedia : Doubleday , Page & Company. 

Every high school in which agriculture is taught should 
have in its reference library this cyclopedia. 

The opening paragraph in the introductory to the set 
is as follows: "Practically all of the matter in the seven 
volumes of this series is taken bodily from the bulletins, 
circulars, annual reports, year books and other documents 
of the Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Sta- 
tions of the United States and Canada." 

There are numerous references throughout the volumes 
to the original sources and for these alone the work is in- 
valuable to teachers and pupils. 



234 

HORTICULTURE, 



Garden Farming, Corbett : Ginn & Company. 
Market Gardening, Burkett: Ginn & Company, 
Market Gardening, Lloyd: J. B. Lippincott Company, 
Orcharding, Sears : J, B, Lippincott Company. 



FIELD CROPS, 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery: J. B. Lippincott 
Company. 

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 

Productive Poultry Husbandry, Lewis: J. B. Lippincott 
Company. 

Common Diseases of Farm Animals, Craig: J. B. Lip- 
pincott Company. 

The above are not texttooks suitable for secondary 
school courses. They are, however, very valuable for the 
reference table. 



CHAPTER IX. , . 

Mechanic Arts. 

The program of studies for the elementary schools of 
New Hampshire in Chapter XVII gives suggestions for 
manual training for Grades V, VI, VII and VIII. The 
last two of these grades are now coming to be included in 
the high school system as a Junior High School and there- 
fore require some consideration in this program. 

MANUAL TRAINING I AND II (GRADES VII AND VIIl). 

This is the age (12.5 years to 14.5 years) when boys have 
a strong tendency to investigate the phenomena of nature 's 



235 

forces as they act upon and through the material world, 
but it is more than this, — -it is the age when boys begin 
to make things that can be used to harness these forces. It 
just precedes and foreshadows the inventive-creative period 
and prepares for it by causing the boy to imitate in his own 
way, the devices, machines and contrivances which adults 
are making use of in their daily employment. 

Manual training in this stage of the boy's development 
ought to concern itself with making many things, useful 
from his standpoint, as — double runners with safety 
brake and steering wheel; hand carts large enough to use 
yet simple enough to be easily within the pupil's construc- 
tive power ; a threshing machine, if he is a farm boy, with 
which he can actually thresh out turnip, cabbage, beet and 
radish seed raised in his garden and to be used in next 
season's planting; a water wheel if he lives near a brook, 
one large enough to drive this threshing machine or to 
pump water or run a jig saw or grindstone ; a windmill, 
though not particularly useful, will fascinate a boy if he 
builds one and it may serve the important purpose of help- 
ing to disclose to the boy, himself, some unusual tendency 
towards mechanical inventiveness. 

The farm-reared boy has abundant opportunity for do- 
ing odd jobs at repairing farm machines and equipment 
and the ages here provided for are the very ones during 
which the foundation for resourcefulness in adapting 
means to ends is laid. A new spoke in a wheelbarrow, a 
new spring in a door lock, a new frame for climbing roses, 
a new leg in a chair, a cupboard for the pantry, a tobog- 
gan, skis, anything and everything which is manifestly 
useful and, if possible, has some complications in its 
make-up that bafifle and yet excite a determination to 
accomplish the result some way, — these are the things the 
teacher must plan with his «lass. 

"Never saw or plane a piece of wood unless it is to be 
used in a project in a way which the pupil foresees." 

Find what your pupils want to make, but do not try to 



236 

make every boy think he needs trousers-hangers for his 
knee breeches or a coat-hanger for his jumper. 

''Don't try to teach a boy to plane a straight edge on 
a three-inch sandpaper block with a twelve-inch jack- 
plane." It cannot be done and it is futile even if accom- 
plished. 

Do not bother about blue prints. Make something and 
learn about reading plans later. 

SUGGESTED LIST OF PROJECTS. 

The following is a list of some things which boys have 
shown a desire to make. They are not classified by grades 
and could not be. They are not in any sense of universal 
value and are only attached to this course in order to 
suggest the type of thing which makes good project work. 

Box and cover, lamp table and drawer, bookcase, dress- 
ing table, small desk, piano bench, plant stand, small 
stool, moulding board, drawing board, T-square, clothes 
chest, tool chest, simple to elaborate chair, sewing table, 
typewriter table, case of drawers for card system, bill 
files, bulletin and pamphlet boxes, whippletree and neck 
yoke, axe handle, hand-cart, wheelbarrow, hammer han- 
dle, plane body and handle, marking gauge, bench stop, 
poultry feeder, trap nests, box trap, grain boxes, egg cases 
and carriers, milking stool, wagon cross-bar or wood axle, 
grindstone bench, cheese press, butter-maker, butter 
stamp, cart body, wagon body, hayrack, harrow frame, 
plow beam, ox yoke, farm sleds, hotbed sash, portable hen- 
house, swine house. 

MECHANIC ARTS III, IV, V AND VI (GRADES IX, X, XI AND XII ). 

Aim. 

This curriculum is both vocational and educational in a 
general sense. It deals with pupils from 14.5 years to 
18.5 years of age. The first two years of this period is the 



237 

time for making up permanent psycho-physical adjust- 
ments and hence is a time for getting right motor habits 
through sensible constructive work in wood, iron, textiles, 
etc. 

It is most emphatically not the time for aiming to get 
skill and productive efficiency. "The short-sighted 
method which falls back on mechanical routine and repeti- 
tion to secure external efficiency of habit, motor skill with- 
out accompanying thought, marks a deliberate closing in 
of surroundings upon growth." — Dewey, Democracy and 
Education, pages 58-59. 

To divorce thinking (mental organization) from doing 
(motor expression) is to break up the biological order of 
reaction to environment common to all animal life from 
protozoa to man. For all ages below 18 certainly manipu- 
lative expertness, habituated motor response, efficient pro- 
duction, movement minus mind, — the whole evil brood of 
movements (expression) under automatic control such as 
economic efficiency demands is a pedagogical sin for which 
no school system and no true teacher can assume responsi- 
bility. It is defying nature's laws and imposes the penalty 
of motor precocity and its inevitable correlate, arrested 
intellectual development. 

Hall has this to say concerning the years from about 
fourteen to sixteen :".... now again comes a greatly 
increased danger .... that over precision, especially if 
fundamental activities are neglected, will bring nervous 
strain and stunting precocity." Again: "machinery has 
relieved the large basal muscles and laid more stress upon 
fine and exact movements that involve nerve strain." 

The public school dealing as it does with youth under 
the age of eighteen years has no right to prematurely 
automatize its pupils by training them through the use of 
commercially productive machinery in which the really in- 
tellectual elements of the processes are incorporated in 
the gears, cams, levers, etc., of the machine, the operator 
being degraded to a mere handler of raw material. 



238 

To illustrate : no one doubts the economic efficiency of a 
quick change gear mechanism on an engine lathe ; a few 
easily acquired adjustments according to the directions on 
the plate, the movement of a lever or two, and the desired 
thread or cutting speed is assured, but how about the boy 
who is not only learning how to cut a thread but is at the 
same time fitting himself to meet in full his duties as a 
doer of the world's work? 

As a matter of fact he has become an attachment of the 
lathe. He moves the lever as directed but knows nothing 
of the ratio of the gears or the application of proportion 
involved. When he comes to a problem not provided for in 
the lathe mechanism he is helpless. 

An old style lathe with a peck of change gears stacked 
up in a tool box is vastly better for a school shop than a 
lathe with the most elaborate mechanism man has yet 
devised because the former mentalizes every movement and 
keeps impression and expression closely connected through 
the organizing capacity of the central nerve system; it 
keeps the intellectual element in the foreground ; it makes 
workers who think as they work. 

No one would regard a Weymouth lathe, with its back 
knife swiftly and accurately turning out balusters, as a 
suitable tool for a school shop because a few experiences 
in putting the stock into the machine and drawing for- 
ward the knife are all that are required to become an 
operator of this lathe. The Weymouth lathe or its equiv- 
alent is highly desirable as a tool for production but is a 
total failure as a means of developing resourcefulness on 
the part of its operator. 

It must never be forgotten, so far as education 
under the age limitations of the public school is con- 
cerned, that the method and aims of the commercial shop 
with its automatic machinery, its high speed processes and 
its "efficiency" organization, is totally unfit for meeting the 
needs of adolescent pupils for the reason that in such shops 
production is the all-important aim, machines being the 



239 

dominating factor in securing this production. Under 
such circumstances, men are necessarily relegated to the 
position of machine tenders, — human mechanism synchro- 
nized with the movements of the machines which they are 
required to keep supplied with raw material. 

The school shop, therefore, must not be equipped, organ- 
ized or managed after the manner of a modern, high-pres- 
sure, commercial shop. 

Again and as a corollary of the above, the commercial 
shop cannot be made an adjunct of the public school under 
the mistaken notion that the practical part of the pupil's 
education can best be given amid adult workmen under 
expert foremen and on highly perfected machinery where 
labor is so divided and specialized that each man has only 
one small part of a whole to do. 

The aim in education for pupils of public school age is 
not to encourage premature automatic control of move- 
ments but rather to secure the widest possible freedom on 
the part of each pupil in devising and trying out reason- 
able ways of doing things. This develops the power to 
utilize whatever agencies are available in the solution of 
any problem that may arise. 

This aim is justified on the well-known psychological 
principle that "the domination of habit means the arrest 
of development," which means that motor activities, — do- 
ing things, — must be kept under a high order of brain 
control thereby effectualizing the distinctly human acces- 
sory muscles of hand, wrist, arm and eye by tying them 
up directly with their corresponding nerve endings within 
the higher human parts of the brain thereby delaying the 
final stage of automatic control which is a stage of arrested 
development, a stage that will come all too soon at best. 

To short circuit nerve control of hand movements by an 
early turning of the inflowing currents towards the lower 
nerve centers is to dwarf, cripple and dehumanize rather 
than to develop and humanize the worker. The blighting 
effect of such premature vocationalization of adolescent 



240 

youth is perfectly evident in the dull eye, tensionless body, 
listless movements and prematurely aged face of the child 
worker in shop and factory where machines and methods 
are adjusted to about as high a pitch as adults can endure. 

The inventive-constructive instinct in the human race, 
an instinct which enables man to change the crude natural 
materials about him in ways to better serve his needs, 
"must have developed in an environment where it was 
useful, ' ' and hence the nurture and normal unfolding of 
that instinct in each individual will best be accomplished 
by a curriculum founded on construction with simple tools 
and machines which require a very large outlay of human 
nerve and muscle for their successful use. The more brain 
and muscle required, the greater the educative value. To 
put hot metal in a press or drop forge, where the machine 
itself predetermines in every detail what the result will be, 
requires little intelligence to start with and develops none 
in the end, but a forge, anvil, vise and hammer made use 
of in shaping the very same useful article both requires and 
develops intelligence. 

A wise old chimpanzee could probably be trained to tend 
the drop forge but not to heat, forge, temper and test in 
the blacksmith's shop. 

It demands and develops normal intelligence to make a 
satisfactory mortise and tenon when constructing a chair 
or table, but a low-grade moron could be trained to oper- 
ate a mortising and tenoning machine. 

It is neither necessary nor desirable to equip our 
mechanic arts shops with complicated and dangerous wood- 
working machinery or with highly-specialized, metal- 
working machines. Tools for wood, a speed lathe for pat- 
tern making, forge tools for iron, a planer, engine lathe, 
drill and plain milling machine for the machine shop are 
the chief requirements in New Hampshire school shops. 
On these the pupil may be taught to do all of the work 
ordinarily required in constructing useful projects that 
are well worth while and which call for the use of a high 
order of intelligence in their planning and manufacture. 



241 

It is a well-recognized fact that the all-round machinist 
who has learned his trade in a general repair shop, where 
a great variety of jobs have to be done on comparatively 
few machines and where human ingenuity must devise 
ways and means for making these machines serve, is the 
most valuable man that can be secured for a real job in a 
manufacturing plant. The same thing is true in the school 
shop, — the pupil who has had to devise, contrive and 
scheme to get the desired result may have spent much time 
in getting the result but as compensation for the extra time 
he has developed gumption, that invaluable quality which 
overcomes obstacles and succeeds in spite of difficulties. 

SHOP V^OOD WORK III. 

Aim. 

The aim in this work is to make something of commer- 
cial value, that is, the projects must be such as would sat- 
isfy the requirement of the user if it were put on the 
market for sale. It must be a real article of use. 

In making this, two starting points are possible; (1) 
Something actually present in the shop may be reproduced 
item by item with or without drawings, or (2) the general 
plan of the project may be developed by the pupil partly 
from something he has seen in use and partly from his 
own notion as to what will best serve the purpose he has 
in mind. 

In either case it is the teacher's business carefully to go 
over the whole matter with the pupil, discussing with him 
the use to which the finished product is to be put, the ma- 
terials proposed, the methods of construction, finish, etc., 
and the advisability of attempting the project. 

Much of the educational significance of projects in wood 
work lies in the adaptation of the work proposed to the 
power and capacity of the worker and there has been quite 
as much damage done by under-estimating the pupil's 
power as by over-estimating it. 

16 



242 

Repeating the trivial projects of the elementary school 
manual training has brought disrespect for high school 
construction courses from both pupils and public. A high 
school pupil who takes the mechanic arts course must 
spend the time given to shop work on projects which are 
worth while and which are fully up to the pupil's con- 
structive powers, otherwise the shop becomes for that pupil 
a place for squandering valuable time. 

A whisk-broom rack may be an appropriate project for 
a sixth-grade boy (it is doubtful if it excites much enthu- 
siasm in any grade) but it is about as poorly adapted to 
the high school pupil as a game of marbles must be to a 
star baseball player. A Morris chair, a substantial table, 
a good-sized tool chest or cabinet, a wheelbarrow, a violin 
ease, a music cabinet, etc., are useful, of good size, require 
good workmanship, involve fundamental principles of con- 
struction, need staining, filling, varnishing, etc., and are 
likely to be wanted by part of the class. 

It may happen that no two boys want to make the same 
thing but it is more likely that a whole class will divide into 
two or three groups, each group being interested in the 
same kind of project. However this may be, the pupil 
should really desire to make the thing he decides on. 

Standards. 

It is not possible and perhaps not desirable that definite 
requirements be established. 

Some pupils work slowly and require twice as long in 
exactly the same construction as another pupil. Some 
projects are very exacting and take much time, while an- 
other project, of equal worth when completed, requires 
less work. 

The real standards to keep in mind are: (a) whether or 
not the pupil is making good use of his time; keeping busy 
and taking a real interest in his work; (b) whether his 
work is as good as he is capable of doing. There must be 
a sliding scale in giving credit for work on projects and 



243 

the teacher must know his pupils well enough to mark 
justly according to both capacity and effort. 

In general, there is too much loafing and too little ac- 
complished in the mechanic arts shop and the remedy lies 
in getting pupils to become personally interested in doing 
good work and in getting a project completed in order that 
a new one may be undertaken. 

Suggestions. 

It is best at the outset to have each pupil consider and 
write down a list of, say, a half dozen, wood-work projects 
which he desires to work on during the year. These lists 
will be of great value to the teacher in planning for the 
year 's work and in giving advice to individual pupils. 

CLASS PROJECTS. 

It will usually be true that the school is in need of a 
great amount of construction of various kinds which the 
class will be glad to do. This work should always be given 
the right of way, for no work accomplished gives greater 
returns to both school and class than the practical repairs 
and construction about the building or in working equip- 
ment. 

DRAWING III. 

Aim. 

The drawing required in this course is to be related to 
the projects undertaken. Drawing boards, T-squares, 
dividers, scale and pencil are to be in the shop ready at a 
moment's notice to be used whenever a detail of construc- 
tion needs to be shown in a drawing. It is probable that 
two hours a week if properly made use of will give ample 
experience for pupils to make the working sketches and 
drawings necessary for their own use or to enable them to 
read drawings already made. The aim is not to prepare 
draftsmen but to give the ability to express ideas in the 



244 

language of working plans or to read that language and 
get the ideas involved. 

There should be no time spent on tracing or inking until 
towards the end of the year at which time one or two trac- 
ings and a few blue prints should be made. 

The drawing in this- course is purely supplementary 
to the construction and must be given by the shop teacher 
in the shop and at such times as a pupil or group of pupils 
actually need the aid that such drawing can give to the 
construction in hand. 

Standards. 

Every project of importance must be sketched and the 
essentials drawn to scale. 

These are to be pencil drawings for actual use and must 
be kept in portfolios where the inspector can readily see 
them. 

PATTERN MAKING AND MOULDING WITH RELATED WOOD TURN- 
ING AND DRAWING. YEAR IV. 

PATTERN MAKING IV. 

Aim. 

• 

It is expected that the course will give pupils sufficient 
practice in pattern making to enable them to understand 
the more common types of patterns and their moulding 
requirements and possibilities. To make this course effec- 
tive all patterns made should be for a purpose ; that is, 
they should be made because some project which is being 
undertaken requires castings and therefore must have 
drawings made and patterns prepared. 

Under the time limitations in school administration it 
seems necessary to take up pattern making in Year IV and 
machine work in Year V. Consequently, projects requir- 
ing castings must be planned early in Year IV so that part, 
at least, of the needed patterns can be made and the cast- 



245 

ings procured ready for the machine work early the fol- 
lowing year. 

There is no more excuse for "exercises" in pattern work 
than there is for "joint" making in wood work and the 
traditional "pipe joint" which is not often needed and 
almost never machined and threaded stands on the same 
false footing as the dovetail joint and its kindred time and 
interest killers, which the formalism of the pedagogue has 
imposed upon the plain, everyday, constructive processes 
whenever and wherever he has reluctantly admitted these 
as school activities. The pedagogy of the practical arts 
can be stated in a paragraph as follows : 

Select as a project something that is needed for a defi- 
nite purpose; construct this as real workmen would do 
with the material and tools available ; and when it is com- 
pleted use it as it was designed to be used. If it is ade- 
quate for the purpose, the effort was successful. If not, 
it must be charged up as a failure. 

Standards. 

Pupils must be able to make mouldable patterns, with 
the necessary core boxes, for projects equivalent to the 
following, which along with many others have been made 
in New Hampshire schools during the last fifteen years: 
electric motor, one-half horse power or more, power pump, 
speed lathe, gas engine, jack screw, portable forge, grinder, 
power hack-saw, power drill, furnace grates, etc. 

MOULDING IV. 

Aim. 

Pupils completing this course must know how to pre- 
pare suitable flasks for any pattern which they have made ; 
must be able to prepare the sand, cores, and all other ma- 
terials needed and must be fully capable of going to the 
moulding bench and completely get a mould ready fpr the 
metal. This must include making necessary cores, baking 
and putting them in place. 



246 



Standards. 



Standards are sufficiently indicated above under Aim 
with the additional caution that inspectors will require 
classes to demonstrate this ability by actual tests and the 
teacher must know that the moulding bench is ready for 
use whenever such a demonstration is asked for. 

Suggestions. 

There should be more attention given to moulding and it 
should closely accompany pattern making. Most of our 
schools are not equipped for handling all of the class at 
any given time on one particular type of work, nor is it 
desirable that they should be. The class should be free to 
follow the needs of the project rather than tied down to 
a fixed daily schedule. 

Whenever a pupil has need to go to the lathe to shape 
some part of his pattern, that is the time for him to go 
there. When his pattern is ready for the shellac, the fin- 
ishing room is his workroom. If a core box has been made 
he should test it by making and baking the core, and when 
all is ready and the final test of mouldability is to be made, 
the moulding bench must be put in order and the mould 
made. Such work makes a minimum shop equipment of 
maximum educational efficiency and demands good class 
and shop organization. 

In addition to this, after the pupil has "tested and 
tried," failed and finally succeeded in getting the art of 
moulding into his muscles as well as mind, he should go 
to the foundry where his casting is to be made and observe 
how practical moulders handle such work. In most small 
foundries, such as schools are likely to go to for their cast- 
ings, it will be easy to get a small space where each pupil 
may finally make the mould in which at least one of his 
castings is to be poured. 

Experience shows that it is not at all difficult to make 
arrangements and to find foremen ready to assist and give 



247 

practical suggestions. It is stretching a good thing to an 
unreasonable length, however, to assume that each pupil 
ought to handle one side of a ladle of the melted iron used 
in pouring, nor should he be expected to help change the 
furnace unless the school has a furnace; in this case it is 
a part of his work just as cleaning up his bench and wiping 
the took are a part. 

Pattern making and moulding are among the most 
highly educative courses in a mechanic arts curriculum if 
the patterns are contributory to worth while projects. 
Formalized, however, into stereotyped "exercises" and im- 
aginary "sequences" these courses fall flat because they 
are without a real motive. 

WOOD TURNING IV. 

The speed lathe educationally considered is of small 
value. It trains hand and eye, to be sure, but pattern mail- 
ing with its use of simple tools is so much more effective 
in this regard that the lathe's contribution is almost negli- 
gible. 

The lathe is merely a tool for producing certain results 
on wood. It is useful, therefore, in both cabinet making 
and pattern making as a means to a given end within the 
project. 

There are a few simple manipulations which the pupil 
should rapidly acquire. After this he should use the 
lathes, not to cover a given amount of time daily for a 
prescribed number of weeks but rather to get out certain 
needed parts of circular cross section which cannot other- 
wise be readily produced. 

The essential thing to learn is the proper relation of 
the edge of the chisel to the revolving wood to insure cut- 
ting instead of scraping. 

At least seventy-five per cent, of all pupils in our 
mechanic arts curriculum who for the past five years have 
been ' ' taught ' ' the use of the speed lathe have finished the 
course without ever discovering the meaning of a tangen- 



248 

tial cutting position for either the gouge or the skew chisel. 
They locate the rest at or below the level of the lathe 
centers, hold the chisel nearly level and scrape away the 
wood until the edge of the chisel is too rounded to even 
scrape. 

This scraping process has its place when the parting tool 
is used or in bringing patterns down to exact measurement 
but in roughing stock down to approximate dimensions and 
for finishing cuts other than on patterns the lathe chisel 
is, or should be, a cutting tool, peeling off shavings in 
ribbon form rather than grinding the wood away in dust. 

The handle of either gouge or skew chisel should be held 
nearly or quite as low as the operator's hip. This carries 
the cutting edge high up on the wood, cuts long shavings 
from the wood, leaves a smooth surface and makes it pos- 
sible to keep chisels sharp. 

Standards. 

Standards are well indicated above. The lathe chisel 
must cut and leave a smooth surface which requires little 
or no sandpapering. 

There is no excuse for turning useless "models" like the 
pin tray, napkin ring, goblet, etc., on which so much time 
has been wasted. Either the pupil has or has not a project 
in cabinet work, pattern making or other purposeful con- 
struction, which requires wood turning. If he has such 
need, then is the time to show him how to handle 
that particular piece of work. If, on the other hand, there 
is nothing for the wood-turning lathe to do, let it stand 
still. Do not try to invent excuses for wood turning when 
there is so much highly educative hand work in pattern 
making, moulding and forging waiting for every pupil. 

DRAWING IV. 

"What has been said under this head in the wood-working 
course applies here but in addition the teacher must rec- 
ognize the greater difficulties involved in reading drawings 



249 

for patterns. This is in part due to cores and core box mak- 
ing and in part to the demands which moulding makes 
upon the pattern maker. 

It is hard to see in the drawing all of the special adapta- 
tions which must be made to enable the moulder to get the 
pattern out of the sand. This ability to read plans follows 
and grows out of the ability to draw plans which in turn 
comes from experience in constructing and drawing closely 
combined as the work progresses. 

This succession is strictly in harmony with the origin 
of the constructive and representative powers as they 
evolved in the race and as they unfold in the individual. 
Making things preceded making a plan of something to be 
made and this in turn preceded turning the plan over to a 
second individual to be by him comprehended and the 
thing constructed. 

Manual training in the lower grades is mostly a matter 
of direct reproduction of a thing known with a little sketch- 
ing to overcome difficulties as they arise. Wood work 
in the mechanic arts curriculum associates the drawing 
very directly with the project but introduces the element 
of planning ahead of construction thereby working out an 
idea into a picture or working plan then producing the 
thing in material form. In pattern, making the pupil will 
need still further to develop this pre-planning, bringing in 
more and more detail until the drawing is complete 
enough for another workman, who does not know what this 
draftsman had in mind, to read in the plans, elevations, 
sections, etc., the latter 's ideas accurately enough to make 
a pattern precisely such as the draftsman would make if he 
were making his own pattern. This last process of reading 
a drawing is really the ultimate end and aim of teaching 
drawing. It does not require great technique in draw- 
ing. A simple sketch, with accurate measurements indi- 
cated, may serve every purpose. 



250 

FORGING IV. 

Aim. 

The forge shop with its equipment of simple hand tools 
is in all respects the most educationally effective laboratory 
in the whole range of school activities. The reason is dis- 
closed in the previous general discussion of aims, namely, 
the lack of complicated machines which supplant human 
thinking and the use of just such hand tools as primitive 
man used to hammer and cut and burn his way onward 
through an adverse, antagonistic environment. 

Pre-man's first move towards the human was when he 
augmented the power of his hand with a stone hammer; 
his next was when he developed this hammer into a stone 
cutting tool; his next was when he discovered the useful- 
ness of fire. Much later he discovered ways of extracting 
and using metals so that his stone axe, hammer, chisel, 
knife, spear, etc., became metal tools. Hence it is that our 
constructive instincts, which are the results of these prim- 
itive utilizations of nature's niaterials and forces, are best 
nurtured and developed by activities closely related to these 
early ones. Nor can the recent inventions of civilized men 
ever take the places of the simple hand tools in bringing 
mind and muscle of adolescent pupils into adjustment 

Fill the school shop with steam hammers, drop forges, 
moulding machines and presses, mortise and tenoning ma- 
chines, turret lathes, automatic screw cutting lathes, sur- 
faces and moulders, etc., and its usefulness in education 
would approach zero. Such a shop would serve chiefly 
to train, not to educate, automatic human machines to be 
coupled up with automatic shop devices and ■ would un- 
questionably aid bolshevism and hinder Americanization. 

Standards. 

There should be very little, if any, forging apart from 
projects. The twisted hasp, staple, unused link, the rod 
headed, but headed for no purpose, — the whole wall case 



251 

full of "models" which the instructor brought home from 
college, together with his herbarium and insect collection, 
is pitiful proof of the inadequacy of the higher educa- 
tion as a preparation for teaching high school pupils how 
to do things. The teacher of athletics alone comes from 
his college training filled with the notion that the way to 
teach boys how to accomplish results is to show them how 
to do a thing and then never quit until they can do it as 
well as he or better. 

Most forging projects connect up with something that is 
being made in the wood or iron-working shop. To iron a 
sled or sleigh, a cart or wagon body; to make bolts for 
planer or milling machine bed ; to forge and temper lathe 
and planer tools, or make chisels and parting tools for the 
speed lathe ; to mend broken chains, rods, bars and braces ; 
to sharpen and temper stone drills ; to forge cold chisels, 
reface hammers, make punches, etc., — these are the types 
of work which a well-planned feourse in forging will pro- 
vide. 

Pupils must leave the course knowing how to temper 
steel for various uses, how to weld iron or iron and steel 
and how to case harden and anneal. 

There is no time for chipping and filing unless some 
piece of useful work requires it. 

MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE V. 

Aim. 

The aim is to construct projects of real use and value 
which require in their making the use of engine lathes, 
planer or shaper, drill, grinder, etc. 

Facility in the use of these machine-shop tools is to be 
acquired through using them in shaping the metal parts 
of projects. 

Here again, as in Household Appliances or Farm Tools, 
the structure of the tool and the function of its parts is 



252 

not the aim. These things will be learned as the machine 
is used in the process of making things. 

How to turn a true cylinder, or taper, how to surface a 
metal disk, face a pulley, cut a thread, bore a cylinder, is 
most economically and effectively taught when the part 
operated on is known to belong to some previously planned 
project requiring certain exact dimensions and the fine 
adjustment of the lathe or grinder essential to producing 
the desired result becomes a serious matter with the pupil 
because he wants the project to stand the test of use. 

If an electric motor is being made it must, when com- 
pleted, show an efficiency at least equal to that of motors 
put on the market by commercial manufacturers. 

A school-constructed gas engine must develop power as 
economically as similar engines from commercial shops. 
These are real motives for painstaking, accurate work. 

APPLIl^D SCIENCE. 

Again the aim in a mechanic arts course is to teach 
science in its applied forms. The pupil does not learn 
numerous laws relating to the flow of currents of electric- 
ity, of magnetic fields, or memorize formulas ; he does, 
however, construct a motor or generator according to pre- 
pared plans and in the process of winding, insulating, con- 
necting, adjusting and testing he discovers many facts 
relating to the direction in which the coils must lead, the 
amount of wire needed, the complete insulation necessary, 
the accurate adjustment of the shaft and bearings, etc. 

In forging and tempering tools for lathe, planer 
and drill he discovers many facts relating to the physi- 
cal properties of steel under different treatments. 

There are many applications of mathematics, physics 
and mechanics which give the pupil a retainable grasp on 
the principles involved. This is the inventive-creative age 
for boys and the constructive activities should recognize 
and appeal to these instinctive tendencies. 



253 

Standards. 

Standards are so closely tied up with the kind of projects 
that definite requirements cannot be stated. A degree of 
accuracy and finish, satisfactory when making a jackscrew, 
would not be passable on parts of a gas engine or electric 
motor. The standard of workmanship must conform to 
the accepted practice of good shops, on similar grades of 
work, and this the teacher must know from actual experi- 
ence in commercial shops. This is why the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education insists upon two years of actual 
shop experience for all teachers of shop subjects. 

Now, while numerical standards cannot be established 
either as to quantity or quality of work, it is nevertheless 
true that the State Department, through its inspectors, will 
insist upon a reasonable output of projects of really supe- 
rior quality. 

A reasonable output is one that keeps interested pupils 
busy during the shop hours and any inspector or even the 
casual observer can readily determine whether this is the 
ease or not. 

RECORDS. 

Some form of card project record must be kept, showing 
the number of hours each pupil has put on a given project, 
and this should indicate in a general way the kind of 
work, e. g., lathe work, drilling, planer work, hand work, 
assembly, testing, etc. 

The project card can be best made up from an individual 
pupil card where, day by day, each pupil furnishes the 
data of his own labor. 

The class in shop management, if there is such, or if not, 
each class during some definite periods devoted to shop 
management, should prepare plans for these records and 
devise ways of keeping them. 

Inspectors will call for card or other records which will 
be sufficiently definite for them to determine just what 



254 

each pupil has had in way of experience on each machine 
in the shop or in other processes involved in the construc- 
tion of projects. 

STOCK RECORDS. 

It is desirable to know accurately the cost of the mate- 
rials which enter into a project and also to know what 
supply of materials are on hand in the shop. 

The project record should show the former and the siock 
record the latter. 

There should be an inventory of tools and stock at the 
end or beginning of each term and a record of each kept in 
permanent form. 

Suggestions. 

Suggestions have been freely given already but a rein- 
forcement of those relating to projects is needed. 

The teacher must recognize the continuity of Years IV 
and V. Many of the pattern-making projects in Year IV 
must be continued and the castings machined and assem- 
bled. These projects follow the class. There are others, 
however, which may become interclass projects ; for ex- 
ample, it may be decided to make a forge for the black- 
smith shop or a power drill for the machine shop. Now 
the plans may originate with the senior class; the patterns 
may be made by sophomores, juniors and seniors by select- 
ing according to the difficulties involved ; the lathe and 
planer work may be either junior or senior jobs; the gear 
cutting, grinding and fine work on bearings, etc., may be 
given to the seniors as will most of the assembling. In this 
way the three classes become one, so far as this project is 
concerned. 

It is very desirable that an occasional rush job be 
planned. Let us assume that the janitor needs a barrel 
truck for wheeling out the ash cans and wants it within 
a day or two. The wood is in the plank, the straps and 



255 

rods are in bars, the wheels and boxes are yet in the form 
of pig iron at the foundry. 

Here is work for the four classes. Let a senior make a 
sketch with dimensions for the wood work, another senior 
or a junior may draw a working plan for the wheels and 
yet another pupil sketches the bearings or shoe. Within 
an hour freshmen may be ripping out the frame ; sopho- 
mores heading and threading the rods ; a junior may be 
turning the bearings on the axle and in two hours the pat- 
tern may be under way and every part in process of con- 
struction. When patterns are ready a pupil or group may 
go to the foundry and mould them so that quite likely at 
the end of one day the foundry will have poured the cast- 
ings. Drilling, machining, glueing up the frame, ironing 
and finally painting the iron and shellacing the whole may 
keep parts of four classes busy for whatever time is nec- 
essary. It is often a revelation to the teacher to discover 
how much work can be accomplished under the stress of 
unusual interest. 

A new change gear for a lathe can be made another 
rush job, as can also making and ironing a set of whipple- 
trees, building a wheelbarrow, double runner, etc. 

These are special projects that enliven and make real 
the activities of the school shop but, like spice in food, 
too much js quite as bad as none at all. 

PRO.JECT POSSIBILITIES. 

The only limitations on size and complexity of school- 
shop projects are: (a) the mechanical equipment of the 
shop, (b) the experience and ability of the teacher, and 
(c) the expense involved. With shops equipped as re- 
quired in New Hampshire an engine lathe or planer of 
small size or a twenty-inch, back-geared drill could be 
built. 

A ten-horse power gas engine or a five-horse power elec- 
tric motor or generator is easily possible. Speed lathes, 



256 

complete with counter shaft, grinders of various kinds, 
vacuum cleaners, portable forges, delivery wagons or 
sleighs, a two-horse farm wagon or set of sleds, hand or 
power pumps and, as a sort of masterpiece in correlation 
with the electrical construction course, a self-contained 
electric generating house-lighting, water-pumping power 
plant complete from kerosene engine to storage battery and 
motors and pumps, — all of these and many others are rea- 
sonable possibilities. It only requires a competent, cour- 
ageous, industrious teacher to manage it all. The pupils 
have abundant mental and manipulative capacity for such 
work. It only needs developing into power. 

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION V. 

Aim. 

This is not a course in the theory of electricity. It can- 
not be taught in a physics laboratory and no textbook has 
yet even attempted to cover such a course. 

The work starts with actual construction of: 

(a) Devices for generating electricity, primary bat- 
teries, magnetos, dynamos. 

(b) Devices for conducting, insulating, transforming 
and rectifying the current generated. 

(c) Electric bells, motors, electro-plating apparatus for 
using the current. • 

(d) Storage batteries for holding the current for future 
use. 

(e) House wiring in its commercial aspects. 

Standards. 

Institute Circular No. 96 gives the requirements for 
this course with a detailed outline for the guidance of 
teachers. 

Sug^gestions. 

It requires a teacher who has had experience in shops 
where electrical machinery and devices are made and who 



257 

is willing to teach boys how to stand at the bench and ^ 
things rather than sit in classroom seats and hear lectures ^ 
about how things ought to be done. 

The theory of electricity, so far as entered into, is a sec- 
ondary matter and crops out from time to time after a 
device is constructed or is in process of construction and 
it only appears here because of its technological bearing 
upon the way the machine or device operates or responds 
to the current or the current develops from the mechanism. 

steam pitting v (optional with electrical 
construction). 

Steam fitting vocationally offers excellent opportunities 
for employment and it also has a relatively high educa- 
tional value. 

The aim is to make the course distinctly constructional 
and it must deal with actual steam-heating projects. 

Standards. 

Circular No. 97 outlines a definite course and suggests 
ways and means for making it both vocational and educa- 
tional. 

The standards are qualitative, chiefly, since definite 
amounts of work are hard to specify. The projects must 
be real and the related mathematics and physics must cen- 
ter about the project and not wander off into the field of 
formal science. 

Teach as much mathematics and physics as is useful to 
the steam fitter and makes him an intelligent worker, able 
to plan and lay out jobs as well as to" fit and erect. 

Suggestions. 

See Circular No. 97. 

applied physics v. 

In the mechanic arts curriculum the constructional 
courses in forging, machine work, electrical construction 

17 



258 

and steam fitting constantly bring to the surface funda- 
mental principles in physics but always in their technolog- 
ical aspect. It is desirable that these everyday shop ex- 
periences be organized in the pupil's mind but it is futile 
to attempt this through the traditional textbook and lab- 
oratory course in physics with its logical or historical 
treatment of physical phenomena. 

The pupil who is wrestling with the problem of building 
a transformer discovers that the wires which lead into these 
devices have no actual material connection with the wires 
which lead out and yet currents get through in some way 
and may be changed very materially in voltage. Any alert 
human being wants to know the reason for this. It is just 
the time to look into the matter of induction and to work 
out experimentally, or otherwise, the conditions which 
control these changes. 

In constructing generators or motors, Ohm's law, Lenz's 
law and other important principles governing the behavior 
of electrical currents are involved in winding the coils. 
Now when the pupil is actually wiring a motor the signifi- 
cance of these laws can be understood, hence these related 
parts of physics should be taken up in the shop as the 
wiring progresses. In annealing and hardening steel the 
magnetic properties of this metal determine the optimum 
temperature at which to quench, therefore at the forge, 
when hardening a lathe tool or softening an arbor blank, is 
the place and- time for demonstrating the value of this 
fact of science. 

It will be seen that much of this course in physics has 
to do with the heat treatment of steel, which involves the 
molar and molecular properties of iron, — with the strength 
and conductivity of metals and in general with energy as 
manifested in heat and electricity but always with the 
practical applications uppermost in the pupil's mind. 



259 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY V. 



Aim. 



This is a "related subject" course and designed to give 
the pupil an intelligent comprehension of the development 
of the mechanical industries, their tools and materials and 
their relation to human welfare. 

Standards. 

The course should be one of investigation rather than 
one in which the condensed information of some text is 
accepted as final. Topics should be assigned and reading 
references given so that the class can gather ideas from a 
variety of sources and organize these ideas into Iconclusions 
that are their own. 

MACHINE WORK VI. 

Aim. 

There is nothing particularly new in the general aim this 
year. New machines, especially the milling machine, are 
used and the projects are developed to correspond with the 
new possibilities of the shop and increased power of the 
pupil. 

Pupils should go out from this closing year fairly fa- 
miliar with the fundamental processes of wood and iron 
working. They should feel competent and at ease when 
planning and executing a piece of work on lathe, planer 
or milling machine but there should be no serious attempt 
at securing rapidity. To be able to do the job well is the 
important thing. Speeding up at this age means a poor 
quality of work. Speed comes later. 

Machine shop managers want these boys to come from 
the school able to do " head work ' ' as well as to manipulate 
a machine. If he can mount the work in the machine in- 
telligently, adjust the tools properly and work to plan and 



260 

measurement, the particular degree of efficiency required 
in the shop will be shown him as he gets accustomed to his 
job. 

Standards. 

To turn out jobs of good workmanship. 

To be ''ingenious" in devising ways and means. 

To keep machine and tools in good working order. 

To know how to read and follow drawings. 

To follow instructions cheerfully when instructions are 
given. 

To be able to explain just what is being done and why. 

These are some of the important things. 

In addition, the elements of shop organization and man- 
agement should be taught and whenever possible pupils 
should be selected to assume the responsibility for manag- 
ing the work on some definite project. 

There can be no make-believe or make-shift projects in 
this course. Everything undertaken must be of "commer- 
cial use and value." 

Projects must be difficult enough to tax the capacity of 
the shop and the powers of the pupil well up to their limit. 

Pupils of this age are capable of doing a man-sized 
job in man fashion so far as quality is concerned and they 
are making their final adult adjustments and are, there- 
fore, forming permanent motor habits of the accessory 
organs. These habits must be right so far as quality goes 
and to insure this quantity production must be kept some- 
what in the background. 

MECHANICS AND MECHANISMS VI. 

Aim. 

This related course aims to insure a working knowledge 
of certain natural phenomena resulting from gravitation 
chiefly: motion, velocity, force, mass, work, power, energy, 
friction, etc., are the fundamentals of this science. But 



261 

in this it is the applied rather than ''pure" science that 
must be taught. 

Power evolution and transmission involves a knowledge 
of engines, motors, etc., of pulleys, belts, gears, sprockets 
and chains. 

The amount of horse power generated or transmitted or 
used up by machines of various kinds is a subject for prac- 
tical investigation. 

How wide a belt is required to run a given main shaft 
with its accompanying machines 1 Does the velocity of the 
belt have anything to do with this answer ? 

What size of pulleys is required to get certain speeds 
of lathes starting from a given motor pulley? 

How long must a belt be to connect pulleys of certain 
sizes whose centers are a known distance apart? 

"What is the surface speed of varying sized cylinders ac- 
tually to be turned in the engine lathe ? 

What must be the size of cone pulleys to get certain 
speeds for wood turning and yet make use of a belt of 
constant length ? 

How are gears to be proportioned to get certain definite 
results ? 

These are types of questions to be answered by this 
course. 

It involves mathematics, laboratory experiments, draw- 
ing, designing and actual measurements, tests and compu- 
tations in the school shop as well as data obtained from 
shops, factories, and power p'lants outside. 

SHOP MATHEMATICS. 

This course can be included within the time set apart 
for mechanics or it can be made a unit course in itself. It 
must be a course in which mathematics is applied to shop 
work and shop equipment. It must include arithmetic, al- 
gebra, trigonometry and geometry and may very properly 
be extended to include the elements of calculus. 



262 

APPENDIX A. 

Bibliography, — Education and Psychology. 
School Administration. 

♦Public School Administration Cubberly. H. M. 

Administration of Public Education Button & Snedden. 



U. S. 



Mac. 



Classroom Management Bagley. Mac. 

♦Educational Administration Strayer & Thorndike. 

Mac. 

♦Administration of Educ. in a De- 
mocracy Hollister. Scrib. 

Management of City Schools Perry. Mac. 

♦High School Administration Hollister. Heath. 

♦Summary of the Cleveland Survey. . Ayers. 

Rural School Management Wilkinson. Silver. 

School and Class Management Arnold. Mac. 

The Curriculum Bobbitt. H. M. 

♦Classroom Organization and Control. Sears. H. M. 

♦The Discipline of the School Morehouse. Heath. 

Secondary Education. 

The American High School Brown. Mac. 

Principles of Secondary Education. Monroe. Mac. 

Secondary Education Inglis. H. M. 

♦Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Parker. Ginn. 

Psychology of the High School 

Branches Judd. Ginn. 

♦An Introduction to High School 

Teaching Colvin. Mac. 

♦The Educative Process Bagley. Mac. 

Supervised Study Hall-Quest. Mac. 

High School Education Johnson & Others. Scrib. 

Problems of Secondary Education . . Snedden. H. M. 

♦High School and Class Management. Hollister. Heath. 

Elementary Education. 

Elementary Education Keith. Scott For. 

♦Psychology of the Common Branches. Freeman. H. M. 

♦How to Teach Strayer & Norsworthy. 

Mae. 

Types of Teaching Earhart. H. M. 

How to Teach the Fundamental 

Subjects Kendall & Mirick. H. M. 

Socializing the Child Dynes. Silver. 

The Rural Teacher and His Work. . Foght. Mac. 

♦Motivation of School Work Wilson. H. M. 

Classroom Management and Methods. Betts. Bobbs Merrill. 



263 



History of Education. 

*History of Education in the United 

States Dexter. 

*A Student's History of Education. . Graves. 
♦History of Education (3 vols.).... Graves. 
♦Encyclopedia of Education (5 vols.). Monroe. 
Brief Course in the History ol Ed- 
ucation Monroe. 

A Text Book in the History of Edu- 
cation Monroe. 

Principles and Philosophy of Education. 

The Vitalized School Pearson. 

*The Teacher and the School Colsrove. 

*The Teacher's Philosophy Hyde. 

*The Ideal Teacher Palmer. 

What is Education Moore. 

♦Democracy and Education Dewey. 

Textbook in the Principles of Edu- 
cation Henderson. 

Education for the Needs of Life .... Miller. 

Schools of Tomorrow Dewey. 

♦Principles of Education Bolton. 

♦Principles of Educational Practice.. Klapper. 

Principles of Education Ruediger. 



Mac. 
Mac. 
Mac. 
Mac. 

Mac. 

Mac. 



Mac. 
Scrih. 
H. M. 
H. M. 
Ginn. 
Mae. 

Mae. 

Mac. 

Dutton. 

Scrib. 

Appleton. 

H. M. 



Educational Sociology. 



Introduction to Educational Sociol- 
ogy Smith. 

The School as a Social Institution. . Bobbins. 

♦Education and Industrial Evolution. Carlton. 

♦Social Development and Education.. O'Shea. 

Social Principles of Education.... Betts. 



H. M. 
AUyn. 



H. M. 
Scrib. 



Measurements. 



Mental and Physical Growth Terman. H. M. 

♦The Measurement of Intelligence... Terman. H. M. 

♦Educational Tests and Measurements. Monroe, DeVoss, Kelly. 

H. M. 
♦Measuring the Results of Teaching. Monroe. H. M. 
Statistical Methods Applied to Edu- 
cation Rugg. H. M. 

Educational Mleasureoments Starch. Mac. 

The Scientific Meas. of Classroom 

Products Chapman & Rush. Silver. 

♦Methods and Standards for Local 

School Surveys Bliss. Heath. 

Measuring the Work of the Public 

Schools Judd. Cleveland Survey. 

Measurement of Teaching Efficiency. Arnold. S. Mandel. 

♦Introduction to the Scientific Study 

of Education Judd. Ginn. 



264 



School Hygiene. 

* School Hygiene Dresslar. Mac. 

* Health "Work in the Schools Hoag & Terman. H. M. 

School Hygiene Shaw. Mac. 

*Hygiene of the School Child Terman. H. M. 

*Growth and Education Tyler. H. M. 

*Play and Recreation Curtis. Ginn. 

*Healthful Schools Ayers, Williams, "Wood. 

H. M. 

Vocational Education. 

*Examples of Industrial Education.. Leavitt. Ginn. 

*The Vocational Guidance Movement. Brewer. Mac. 

Readings in "Vocational Guidance. . Bloomfield. Ginn. 
Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the 
U. S. Commr. of Labor — 1910. 
Vocational Education of Girls and 

"Women Leake. Mac. 

Vocational and Moral Guidance.... Davis. Ginn. 

Prevocational Education Leavitt & Brown. H. M. 

Psychology. 

*Bssentials of Psychology Pillsbury. Mac. 

How "We Think Dewey. Heath. 

*Outlines of Educational Psychology. Pyle. "Warwick & York. 
*Educational Psychology, — Briefer 

Course Thorndike. Col. U. Press. 

*Youth, Its Education, Regimen and 

Hygiene Hall. Appleton. 

The Learning Process Colvin. Mac. 

How to Use Your Mind Kitson. Lippincott. 

Introduction to Child Psychology. . "Waddle. H. M. 

The two following books consist of about thirty pages 
each, but are invaluable for teachers who wish to aid pupils 
to learn how to study. They should be read by every high 
school teacher. 



*How to Study Effectively "Whipple. 

''Training Pupils to Study Wilson. 



Public School 
Pub. Co., 
Bloomington, 111. 
Warwick & York. 



The starred titles indicate works which the compiler of 
the above bibliography thinks most valuable for the busy 
teacher or superintendent or for the one who must pur- 
chase his own books. 



265 

APPENDIX B. . 

The Art of Teaching. 

introduction (impression). 

The Art of Teaching Stated in General Terms. 

Herbart's "five formal steps in teaching" need defor- 
mMizing and restating in order that they may become more 
a matter of understanding and less a matter of rule-of- 
thumb with teachers. Practical pedagogy is coming more 
and more into harmony with biological facts and its prin- 
ciples need re-examining in the light of these facts. 

Fundamental Properties of Living Matter. 

There are three primordial properties of living pro- 
toplasm, namely, sensitivity, conductivity and contractility. 
In the simplest forms of animal life these properties are 
diffused throughout the substance of the cell (study the 
reactions of the amoeba). As higher forms of life appear 
groups of cells or special organs become differentiated and 
set apart for (a) receiving external impressions (the ef- 
fect of contact with environment), (b) conducting and 
modifying such impressions within the organism and (c) 
contracting, or securing movement, in ways favorable to 
the well-being of the organism (reaction to environment), 
(b) means adjustment; (c) means adaptation. Hence we 
have (1) sense organs: (cilia, tentacles, antennge, eyes, 
ears, etc.) ; (2) conducting tissues: (nerve cells and fibres, 
nerve centers, etc.); (3) contracting tissues: (muscles). 
These three original properties of protoplasm are the basic 
factors determining the way in which any animal, from 
amoeba to man, responds to the influence of environment. 
In one-celled animals (the protozoa) all of the functions 
of movement essential to survival and reproduction are 



266 



general properties of the protoplasm, whereas in many- 
celled animals these functions are more or less separated 
and performed by groups of cells which are called organs, 
e. g., the eye, the optic nerve, the biceps muscles, etc. 

Concretely restated this means that the environment di- 
rectly or indirectly comes into contact with a living ani- 
mal (impression). The comfort, safety or even survival 
of this animal depends upon its reaction (behavior) with 
respect to this particular environmental influence, but 
that part of the animal receiving the impression (the 
cilia of the Paramecium, the tentacle of the hydra, the 
antennae of the lobster, the eye of man, etc.) is generally 
not the part which can so act as to favor escape from 
danger or to assist in securing food or otherwise to re- 
spond in beneficial ways, hence the immediate effect of 
impression must be conducted to such organs or parts as 
are capable of making an appropriate response. This con- 
duction in many-celled animals is by means of nerve cells 
or tissues or equivalent organs. 

It is not enough, however, merely to conduct the effects 
of impression, the message must be brought into organ- 
ized, meaningful relationship to the animal as an organism 
in order that the contractile tissues (muscles) may give 
expression to movements which are appropriate and nec- 
essary. 

The following schematic statement will help to fix the 
points above briefly stated: 



Properties of Living Protoplasm. 

Differentiated tissues and 
organs in higher animals. 


Sensitivity. 
Sense organs. 


Conductivity. 

Nerve cells 
and fibres. 
Nerve centers. 


Contractility. 
Muscles. 


Environmental relationship 
and reaction of the organism. 


Sensation. 


Transmission. 


Movement. 


Pedagogical equivalents. 


Impression. 


Organization. 


Expression. 


Prest. Eliot's descriptive defi- 
nition of the educative process. 


"To observe 
accurately, 


to group, com- 
pare, relate, to 
infer justly and 


express 
cogently." 



267 

ARGUMENT ( ORGANIZATION ) . 

The General Principle Involved in Experience and Habit. 

The higher animal organisms through experience acquire 
the general habit of reacting to environment in ways favor- 
able to well-being, otherwise through the "elimination of 
the unfit," they sooner or later cease to exist. 

Education as a General Proposition. 

Education in its most general sense has to do with the 
acquisition of habits of appropriate response to any and 
all situations. It involves two major factors, namely: 

(1) Adjustment. 

This is the subjective phase and includes all changes 
within the organism which permanently affect chiefly (a) 
the sensitivity or impression receiving power and (b) the 
conductivity or organizing power. 

(2) Adaptation. 

This has to do with relationship between the organism 
and its environment and is chiefly a matter of (a) the 
organizing power, and (b) the expressive power. 

A Concrete Illustration of Adjustment and Adaptation. 

(1) The Situation. 

A comparatively inexperienced individual and an auto- 
mobile which has suddenly and for no obvious cause 
ceased to function. 

(2) The Individual's Present Available Knowledge. 

He has some present adjustment derived in part from 
a study of high school physics and in part from actual 
experience with a simple gasoline engine used at home. 
He also knows in a very general way about batteries, con- 
ducting wires and connections, and spark plugs. Accord- 



268 

ingly, he has certain items of knowledge about the 
mechanisms under the hood of his machine. He is not, 
however, sufficiently adjusted to master at once the situa- 
tion. 

(3) The Acquisition of New Knowledge. (1) The bat- 
tery is tested by turning on the lights and sounding the 
horn, or if. a gravity-testing device is available the electro- 
lyte is tested and the battery determined to be all right. 
(2) The wires and connections are followed and found to 
be in proper order. (3) The spark plugs are examined 
and found whole and clean. (4) The gasoline tank is ex- 
amined and found to be half full. 

The limit of this individual's adjustment with respect 
to automobiles we will assume has been reached and he is 
not sufficiently adapted to the situation to solve the prob- 
lem. 

Now two possibilities lie ahead. He may walk home or 
he may acquire new knowledge in some way. Many, and 
perhaps most, attempt to acquire this new* knowledge by 
telephoning to a garage, describing the symptoms as fully 
as possible, receiving in return suggestions as to new tests 
or advice as to further procedure. There are others, how- 
ever, who proceed " pedagogieally " by further adjusting 
themselves through a process of getting new impressions 
by various experiments or by further organization of what 
they already know. 

In the first process, that of getting new impressions, one 
may try advancing or retarding the spark or he may un- 
cover and look at the timer, or make random changes in 
carburetor or clean up the electrical connections. Under 
second heading, that of further organization of his 
knowledge, he may review all of his own experiences and 
so much of that of others as he can recall, that is, he may 
think about it. 

Either process may solve the problem or both may fail. 

All of this is an attempt at getting new impressions 



269 

TYhich may help to locate the difficulty and hence facilitate 
a better organization of knowledge. 

Thus far we have been dealing almost entirely with the 
operator of the automobile. We have seen how he tries to 
adjust himself to meet the demands of a situation with 
which he is not familiar. Now we have to follow him as 
he organizes bits of new experience with what he already 
knows, thereby establishing such a relationship betweeii 
himself and his environment that the result becomes a 
solution of the problem of starting the automobile ; that is, 
we are tracing how the man adapts himself to his adverse 
environment. 

The facts are as follows: The motor turns over nor- 
mally; the battery is working; the wires seem properly 
insulated and connected ; the spark plugs show no defects ; 
there is gasoline enough in the tank but the outstanding 
fact is that there are no explosions in the cylinders. 

The carburetor has a device such that it can be "flooded" 
and the operator has been told that it facilitates start- 
ing, especially in cold weather, if this device is manip- 
ulated so that gasoline overflows. He operates the device 
but gets no overflow ; repeated trials result the same. Here 
is a new fact of observation {impression). What effect 
has this on the facts already possessed ? What can his or- 
ganizing powers do with this fact ? 

There is gasoline in the tank at the rear of the machine 
but none in the carburetor. Where is the trouble located ? 
Is the pipe leading from the tank to the vacuum feed 
clogged? By disconnecting this supply pipe from the 
feed he can by means of his tire pump and a yard of elec- 
trician's tape, force air back into the tank if the pipe is 
clear. Trial shows that air does not bubble back through 
the gasoline. He applies more pressure and at last cleans 
the tube. 

A new fact impressing itself through the sense of sight 
as the carburetor failed to flood is organized with exist- 
ing knowledge, thereby creating a new adjustment within 



270 

the nerve mechanism, results in the possibility of a new 
adaptation to environment. The air pump impresses upon 
the senses of hearing and touch two facts : first that of an 
obstruction, and second that of the sudden removal of the 
obstruction. 

This adjustment is initiated by the impression of a sud- 
den flow of air through the supply pipe. It is developed 
by mentally organizing the new fact into the existing 
knowledge with the resulting prediction, "Now the motor 
will start," and is completed when the operator gives 
expression to the new faith that is in him by assembling 
the parts and cranking the car. 

The foregoing introduction, it is hoped, will be of serv- 
ice in working out a rational plan of school procedure as 
teachers guide and assist pupils to develop their natural 
capacity into actual power for doing the world's work. 

The Five Formal Steps. 

It was said at the outset that the Herbartian "five for- 
mal steps need deformalizing." The reason for this state- 
ment lies in the fact that the so-called five steps are neither 
five in number nor steps in sequence. The processes over- 
lap in point of time and are not separate and distinct as 
to character. The divisions are artificial in large measure 
and hence the teacher in attempting to follow their lead 
is sure to fall into the error either of dividing into parts 
that which is a whole or of presenting as a whole that 
which needs separating into parts. 

The "five steps," in the days when a series of six 
readers, two geographies, a grammar and two arithmetics 
constituted the working weapons against which for ten 
years the elementary school pupil was constantly on the 
defensive, no doubt tempered the wind to the shorn lamb 
and under such bleak and severe conditions, afforded a 
much-needed protection against the prevalent type of rec- 
itation concerning which Parker says: "The common 
practice of using the class period for mere repetition of 



271 

material learned in the textbook is one of the most perni- 
cious sources of waste and lack of interest to be found in 
school."* This applies with even greater force to the ele- 
mentary school than to the high school. Today, however, 
when supplementary material, not only in printed form but 
as pictures and specimens of products, is available in such 
profusion and is of such convincing quality, and when 
excursions bring pupils into the immediate environment 
of the simple activities of home, shop, farm, store, etc., as 
well as the more complex operation of manufacturing, 
there is no excuse for recitations of the type described nor 
do the "five formal steps" necessarily obviate this "per- 
nicious waste." 

The person who is most suitably educated under pres- 
ent-day conditions is the one who has acquired the power 
to respond appropriately to the largest variety of situa- 
tions as they arise. In securing conditions favorable to 
the development of this power the teacher will be guided 
best by regarding the educative process in its biological 
relations, i. e., the way in which human as well as other 
living organisms naturally act. 

Chapter XXI of the Program of Studies for Elementary 
Schools of New Hampshire, Third Edition, 1916, deals with 
"The Teaching of Any Topic." This chapter is a concise 
statement of a modified form of the Herbartian "five 
formal step's" and has been found helpful by many 
teachers inexperienced and experienced. It will continue 
to be used and hence a comparison of the three plans 
seems desirable. 



Herbart's Classification. 



I Preparation. 

II Presentation. 

Ill Comparison and abstraction. 

IV Generalization. 

V Application. 



Chapter XXI Plan. 



Preparation. 
Presi:ntation. 
Assimilation. 
Organization. 
Recitation. 



Biological Basis. 



I Impression. 

II Organization. 
Ill Expression. 



*Parker: Methods of Teaching in High School, p. 484. 



272 

The correspondence in the above are approximate only 
but sufficiently equivalent to justify the tabulation. A 
brief statement will aid teachers in comparing the proc- 
esses. 

Preparation so far as the pupil is concerned stands for 
recalling impressions which previous experience, direct or 
indirect, have made a permanent part of the pupil's men- 
tal stock in trade. 

Presentation has to do with the teacher's effort in guid- 
ing, directing, suggesting, etc., in order that the pupil 
through his own experience may add new impressions 
susceptible of being organized with the recalled impres- 
sions. The teacher deliberately plans an environment 
likely to give the pupil experiences from which desired 
impressions, chiefly new but obviously related, are likely 
to result. 

Assimilation is the pupil's opportunity for the closest 
possible contact with this specially arranged environment. 
This step, perhaps more than any other, shows the artifi- 
ciality of the Herbartian scheme. The process is largely 
one of impression getting, notwithstanding, it has a con- 
siderable element of organization scattered throughout. 
Again there is no real line of separation between assimi- 
lation and organization. Both assimilation and organiza- 
tion properly fall under that beneficial device of school- 
room administration known as supervised study by means 
of which the teacher directs the pupil by questions and 
suggestions. 

The two "steps," assimilation and organization cover 
the grouping, comparing, relating and inferring as given 
in Prest. Eliot's descriptive definition of the educative 
process. These steps are so inseparable in action that to 
disconnect them in thought is only a trick of logic which 
works to confuse the young teacher and is of no particular 
value to the experienced teacher. . 

The Herbartian steps III and IV are likewise one 
process mentally. They are concerned with comparing, 



273 

relating and inferring and hence are part of the whole 
process of organization which in turn is the tendency of 
the central nerve mechanism of educable animals, man in 
particular, to delay reaction to a given situation by keep- 
ing, the newer accessory parts of the brain in circuit in- 
stead of referring sensations to the old, fundamental 
nerve centers governing instinctive and automatic re- 
sponses. 

CONCLUSION ( EXPRESSION ) . 

Any recitation in any subject whatsover is made up of 
three parts, namely: 

I. Impression. 

The phenomena of the natural world of matter and en- 
ergy, the written or printed page, the spoken word, pic- 
tures, music, tools, mechanisms, etc., — in a word the sum 
total of environment, — as in innumerable ways, it acts 
upon the pupil. 

II. Organization. 

(a) Recalling and reviewing previous impressions or 
the results of previous impressions, (b) Combining with 
these past experiences the related new impressions derived 
through I in order that the new may be interpreted and 
by combination both the old and the new be made more 
available or of greater worth. This is a process worked 
out by the nerve mechanism and depends upon the char- 
acteristic property of nerve tissue which enables it to 
retain in some unknown way the results of previous im- 
pressions in such form that the organism may make use of 
the data of past experience in dealing with present situa- 
tions. 



18 



274 

III. Expression. 

Making an appropriate response (reacting) to a given 
situation, this response being based upon similar impres- 
sions previously experienced but modified by any new ele- 
ments which I and II have shown to be peculiar to the 
present situation. 

Oral and written language, sketches, drawings, arith- 
metical or algebraic solutions, geometrical demonstrations, 
manipulation of plastic materials, paintings, constructions 
in wood, metal, leather, textiles, bodily movements in plays 
and games, etc., etc., are all means of giving expression 
to the net result of impression and organization. 



275 



APPENDIX C. 

Code of Professional Ethics Adopted by the New 

Hampshire State Teachers' Association, 

October 22, 1915. 

I. definition of terms. 

It is desirable that there should be a general profes- 
sional agreement as to the designations to be given to 
members of the teaching profession in the State accord- 
ing to the functions which they perform. It is not well 
that there should be no fixed designations with the result 
that the general public uses such terms as ''professor" in- 
discriminately. The following designations are, therefore, 
recommended and it is hoped that different official bodies, 
qualified to do so, will eventually give them their sanction. 

1. The title of the officer having charge of general 
education in the State of New Hampshire should be the 
Commissioner of Education. 

2. His deputies should be called Deputy Commis- 
sioners of Education. 

3. The head of the New Hampshire College of Agri- 
culture and the Mechanic Arts should be called Presi- 
dent and persons holding chairs in the institution should 
be called Professors according to such grades as the col- 
lege authorities from time to time specify. 

4. The title of the heads of the Normal Schools should 
be Director. 

5. A professional educator engaged in the supervision 
of local school systems should be called Superintendent, 
and his assistant in the work of general supervision should 
be called Assistant Superintendent. 

6. A person whose sole duty is directing both teachers 
and pupils in a special department of school work should 
be called a Supervisor. 



276 

7. The head of an approved secondary school of the 
first class should be called Head Master. 

8. A school officer having the supervision and control 
of teachers and pupils in an elementary school or of a 
secondary school below the grade of first class should be 
called Principal. 

9. The teaching force of the New Hampshire State 
College and the Normal Schools should be called the Fac- 
ulty and that of secondary schools should be called the 
Staff. 

10. The title of Professor should be reserved for teach- 
ers holding chairs in colleges and graduate schools. 

II. RESPONSIBILITY. 

1. The proper conception of education being to de- 
velop all the powers jand faculties of body, mind and 
spirit, with which a child has been endowed by the Cre- 
ator, the first duty of teachers is to safeguard and bring 
to the highest state of perfection the physical, intellectual, 
aesthetic, moral, social, and so far as possible, the spiritual 
endowment of their pupils. 

2. As the teacher must necessarily stand in loco 
parentis^ in rather large measure, the duty of teachers to 
parents is to seek their acquaintance, to cooperate with 
them in the education of their children, to become in- 
formed of the home life and conditions by friendly visits, 
and in all other respects to manifest an interest in the 
individual child. Above all, a teacher should be frank, 
as well as sympathetic, in dealing with parents. Criti- 
cism by parents should be received with courtesy and pa- 
tience. 

3. The duty of teachers to the community is to be loyal 
to those in authority over them. In case of a conflict of 
educational ideals, between teachers and trustees or school 
boards, while they should recognize the fact that the 
school authorities must direct the general policy of the 



277 

school, it is the duty of teachers to be loyal to their pro- 
fessional ideals, to protest against any violation of pro- 
fessional ethics, and in extreme cases to resign, stating 
their reasons to the community. 

While never exploiting their position, teachers should 
always maintain a progressive conservatism of thought 
and action, dignity of character, honesty of purpose, and 
should take an unqualified stand for the best in education 
and in social life. 

ni, THE DUTIES OF TEACHERS TO FELLOW TEACHERS AND TO 
THE PROFESSION AT LARGE. 

1. It is the duty of every teacher to regard every other 
teacher as a fellow crafstman and as entitled to all the 
rights, courtesies, and emoluments that usually obtain in 
other professions, with recognized standards. 

2. It is unprofessional for teachers to criticise co- 
laborers and predecessors, as such procedure tends to 
weaken the confidence in which the work of our profession 
is held by the community. 

3. All teachers should actively affiliate themselves with 
professional organizations and should acquaint themselves 
with the proceedings of the State Association and should 
interest themselves in its activities. 

4. It is an essential part of the ethics of the profession 
that teachers should constantly familiarize themselves with 
its recognized and authoritative literature. 

5. Since they are rightly regarded as examples to pu- 
pils, teachers should always so conduct themselves that no 
just reproach may be brought against them. Where lib- 
erty of conscience is not concerned, they should stand 
ready to make personal sacrifice, because of the prejudices 
of the community in which they live. 

6. It is unprofessional for teachers to tutor pupils of 
their own classes for remuneration. 

7. It is unprofessional for teachers to promote the in- 



278 

terests of canvassers and other salesmen, either directly or 
indirectly, by writing testimonials of their wares. 

8. It is unprofessional for any teacher to lend himself 
to any scheme of self advertising. 

9. It is unprofessional to call for or to allow the use 
of substitutes, except for serious illness or for other grave 
reasons. 

10. A clear understanding of the law of contracts is 
incumbent upon all teachers. Since teachers should 
scrupulously keep whatever agreement they make, they 
should refuse to sign a contract unjust and humiliating 
in form. 

11. It is unprofessional for teachers to resign during 
the period for which they have been engaged. They may 
rightly ask to be released, by giving notice of not less than 
four weeks, but must in case of refusal abide by their con- 
tract. Superintendents should not attempt to induce 
teachers to leave positions immediately before the begin- 
ning of the fall term or during the first or last month 
of the school year. 

12. It is unprofessional for a teacher to underbid a 
rival in order to secure a position. 

13. It is unprofessional for a superintendent or other 
school officer to offer a position to a teacher without first 
conferring with the superintendent under whom that 
teacher is employed. 

14. It is highly unprofessional for a superintendent or 
other school officer to visit, with a view to employing, a 
candidate, at work, without the permission of his or her 
superintendent. "When visiting schools, the visitor should 
never disarrange the work of the day. 

15. It is unprofessional for superintendents and teach- 
ers, in their relations with publishing or supply houses, 
their agents or salesmen, to give just grounds for the sus- 
picion of obligations tending to influence the purchase or 
adoption of books or supplies in favor of any particular 
agent or firm. 



279 

16. The indiscriminate writing of general recommen- 
dations for pupils or teachers is unprofessional. 

17. Teachers should at all times be ready to assist one 
another by giving information, counsel, and advice, and 
by such services and acts as teachers can perform without 
detriment to themselves or their work. Such reasonable 
service should be regarded as a professional duty for 
which remuneration beyond actual expenses should not be 
accepted. 

IV. TEACHERS AS CITIZENS. 

1. It is incumbent on teachers loyally to acknowledge 
all the duties and obligations of citizenship, and to dis- 
charge them both in letter and in spirit. 

2. Because of their peculiar position, teachers should 
especially regard themselves as guardians and promoters 
of the physical, moral, social, and spiritual welfare of the 
community in which they live. 

3. Teachers are and should be the servants of the peo- 
ple, without regard to distinctions of political party, re- 
ligious faith, or other matters which are brought into issue 
and upon which individuals honestly disagree. Teachers 
are fully entitled to liberty of conscience, but it is unpro- 
fessional for them to become partisans upon issues which 
divide the community. 







This book is loaned to the School District by the State. 



Teachers will please take notice and leave it in the School 
Library when they discontinue service in the School. 



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